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RENE J ULES DUB OS
February 20, 1901-February 20, 1982
BY JAMES G. HIRSCH AND CAROL L. MOBERG
REN~ JULES DUBOS, microbiologist and humanist-
philosopher, was professor emeritus at The Rockefeller
University at the time of his death in New York City on his
gist birthday, February 20, 1982. His name calls to mind a
tall, vigorous, rosy-cheeke(1 man, with durable white wisps
on a balding hea(l, intense blue eyes behind thick glass lenses,
a shy yet broac! smile, and beautiful large hancis that enthu-
siastically punctuated every sentence. He was a spellbinding
speaker and a prolific author. His charming French accent
and his perfect command of English made any contact with
him memorable. Whether it was a private conversation or a
public lecture, he always spoke with the knowledge of a scien-
tist, the eloquence of a poet, and the wisdom of a philoso-
pher.
Rene was born in Saint-Brice-sous-Foret, France, on Feb-
ruary 20, 1901, and grew up in Henonville, another small
Ile-cle-France farming village north of Paris. His parents,
Georges Andre Dubos and Adeline De Bloedt, ran a butcher
shop in each of these villages. Rene attended a one-room
school where discipline was strict and students taught one
another. He was a husky boy, fascinated by sports, especially
bicycle racing and tennis, but at age eight he suffered a severe
133
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134
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
attack of rheumatic fever that incapacitated him for more
than a year and left him with ciamaged heart valves. Early in
his youth he was also found to be severely near-sightecl, a
condition that requires! thick corrective lenses. These afflic-
tions instilled in him a fear of possible blindness and of a
shortener! lifespan, a fear that he never shower! but that
nonetheless caused him to live with special intensity and pur-
pose. In place of typical childhood! activities, Rene cleveloped
traits that would dominate the rest of his life. He walker! anc!
explored the countryside, a pastime that helped him cultivate
a meditative mood- what he caller! the beginning of his free-
lance spirit. He also react avidly in history and literature, find-
ing his earliest heroes in French translations of stories about
Buffalo Bill anct Nick Carter.
The family mover! to Paris when Rene was thirteen years
old. Within months, his father was callect to WorIc! War I.
Shortly after his return in HIS, he fell ill and in 1919, cried.
The raising of three children (Rene, his brother Francis, and
sister Madeleine) and the management of the family shop
were left to his mother. Rene helpe(1 run the butcher shop
while continuing his schooling at the College Chaptal. At
fourteen, he read Hippolyte Taine's essay on La Fontaine and
was introclucec! to the concept of the environment as a moIct-
ing force on historical events, particularly on the human
psyche.
At age eighteen he applied to the Ecole cle Physique et
Chimie, but another attack of rheumatic fever caused him to
miss the entrance examination. After recovering he took the
next test that came up, in economics, an(1 was pleasantly sur-
prised that he die! well, ranking fourth out of 400. He was
acimittec! to the Institut National Agronomique and excellect
in all courses except microbiology" an intensely boring
course, he later recalled, that dealt solely with taxonomy. He
neither enjoyed nor excelled in chemistry and toIcl his
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RENE JULES DUBOS
135
mother that this was certainly the last time he would walk
into a laboratory. In his third year he won a scholarship spon-
sored by the government of Indochina for studies of agri-
culture and technology in the Ecole d'Agriculture Coloniale
in Paris with a required period of service in Southeast Asia,
but was later disqualified because of his rheumatic heart ctis-
ease.
In 1922, Rene obtained a position in Rhine on the staff of
the International Institute of Agriculture, a branch of the
League of Nations. For two years, as associate editor of the
International Review of the Science and Practice of Agriculture for
the Bureau of Agricultural Intelligence anct Plant Diseases,
he abstracted journal and agricultural reports from all over
the world. He now spoke Italian and English as well as French
and German. Rene recalled his clays in Rome as very pleasant.
He was a handsome young man with a bushy head of hair
who was particularly attracted to English girls, ostensibly to
improve his language skills. At this time he was undecided
about career goals, considering occupations as divergent as
· · . . .
Burma fist and soent~st.
In the course of his translation duties Rene encountered
an article that he considered the major influence in his life.
While sitting in the Palatine Gardens on a warm May (lay,
instead of reacting about fertilizers in a semipopular journal,
he turned to an article by the famous Russian soil micro-
biologist Serge Winogradsky, then at the Pasteur Institute in
Paris. In it Winogradsky stated that microorganisms should
be studied not in a pure laboratory culture but in their own
environment in competition with other bacteria. He empha-
sized interactions of organisms under natural conditions and
the significance of the role played by the environment in
these interactions. Rene said his scholarly life began with
these ideas ideas he restated in many forms throughout his
life. (Although the two men never met, Winogradsk.y pre-
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136
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
sensed Rene's paper, based on his Rutgers thesis research, at
the Academie des Sciences in Paris in 1927.)
This experience played a major role in his decision to
become a bacteriologist. But Rene did not know how to begin
until he met the American delegate to the International In-
stitute of Agriculture, Asher Hobson, a professor of econom-
ics from the University of Wisconsin. Hobson urged Dubos
to emigrate to America and even offered to lend him money.
Rene took a course in bacteriology at the University of Rome,
earning extra money to pay for his passage to America by
translating books on forestry and agriculture into French. In
1924, at a conference on soil science in Rome, Hobson intro-
duced Dubos to Dr. Selman Waksman, who was then a distin-
.
guished bacteriologist at Rutgers University. Rene's duties as
technical assistant during the Congress included showing
Dr. and Mrs. Waksman around Rome. Fate intervened a few
weeks later when Rene set sad! for America and found that
the Waksmans were fellow passengers on the steamship, Ro-
chambeau. They had plenty of time to talk during the cross-
ing; Waksman was delighted to hear of Dubos's ambitions
and, learning Rene had no definite plans, offered him a small
fellowship as one of his graduate students at Rutgers.
Rene arrived in America and went to New Brunswick with
the Waksmans that same evening. Three years later he com-
pleted his doctor of philosophy degree, doing thesis research
on the decomposition of cellulose by soil bacteria. He cred-
ited Waksman with helping him develop an ecological con-
cept of microbiology through an understanding of the rela-
tion between biochemical and biological processes. Dubos
earned extra money working part time as an animal caretaker
at nearby Johnson & Johnson, tutoring the research direc-
tor's children, washing laboratory glassware on holidays, and
translating papers on poultry pathology for a young pro-
fessor.
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RE N E J u LE S D U B O S
137
It was just about this time that Rene, a bucicling scientist
with an abstract humanist education, read Lewis Mumforct's
Sticks anal Stones. Rene said this American author influenced
his social philosophy by making him realize that institutions
exist not to foster political or economic power, but to serve
human needs and thereby broaden the quality of human life.
Moreover, Mumforct wrote about subjects related to sciences
and humanities in earthy terms that describec! sensory ex-
periences of ciaily life. Mumford's writing had a lifelong effect
on this impressionable young European trying to understand
American ways and to express himself in English.
Rene had no special plans after gracluation, except for
wanting to move from the field of soil science to deal with
more fundamental biochemical problems. His application for
a National Research Council Fellowship was rejectee! because
he was not a citizen. The secretary who sent the rejection
letter penned a note at the bottom recommencing that he
consult with a fellow Frenchman, Alexis Carrel, at The
Rockefeller Institute in New York. This chance event led
Rene to The Rockefeller, where he was clestined to spend
some fifty years of his life. Carrel was kink] ant! considerate
but had no special advice. He took him to lunch and there,
whether by chance or prearrangement, Rene was seated next
to Oswald Avery. Dubos ant! Avery liked each other imme-
diately, spending not only the lunch hour but most of the
afternoon discussing Rene's experiences with soil enrichment
as a technique for recovering microbes that could do almost
anything ant! Avery's preoccupation with the capsule of the
pneumococcus and its role in virulence. Rene brashly stated
that it should be easy to find an organism that couIcl make
a capsule-ciestroying enzyme, a statement that impressed
Avery.
In the summer of 1927, without a job or definite plans,
Rene was France's official delegate at the First International
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138
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
Congress of Soil Science in Washington, D.C. Along with 275
soil scientists from all over the world, he traveler! throughout
the United States and Canada in a chartered train to visit
agricultural experiment stations and to examine clifferent soil
formations. He was offered at least two jobs that summer,
one at the Experiment Station in Fargo, North Dakota, anc}
the other at The Rockefeller with Avery—at half the Fargo
salary which he readily accepted. A series of acciclental
events tract finally lecl him to a place where he could immerse
himself in activities favorable to the clevelopment of his re-
markable career.
Dubos's laboratory career can be diviclect into three gen-
eral phases. The microbiology period, from 1927 to 1944,
was devoted to demonstrating that bacteria nourished in the
proper environment can produce enzymes specific to those
bacteria and to showing that bacteria have genetic mecha-
nisms. During the tuberculosis and experimental pathology
period from 1944 to 1960, certain products of bacteria were
shown to stimulate immunity, ant] environmental factors
were found to influence susceptibility to clisease. The envi-
ronmental period, from 1961 to 1971, was (1ecticated to show-
ing that various environmental stresses affect the develop-
ment of the whole organism.
At no time was there a gap or significant change in the
direction of his career. The fourth ant! final phase of his life,
from his official retirement in 1971 until his cleath in 1982,
was spent writing and lecturing on environmental and social
determinants of health anc! disease. As he evolved into an
environmentalist, he appliecl his earlier concerns to broader
fields. His interests progresses! from studies of pneumonia
and tuberculosis to the whole pattern of disease ancl, finally,
to the quality of human life on earth. The unifying thread in
this seeming diversity was his perception that any living or-
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REN E J u LE S D U B O S
139
ganism, whether microbe, man, or society, can be unclerstooct
only in the context of the entire web of relationships it forms
with everything else. A brief review of his major accomplish-
ments in each of these phases reveals his continuous search
for those factors in health that he believer! are cleterminecT
more by surroundings than by the mere presence or absence
of microbes.
The microbiology period began with Dubos working
alone in a small laboratory on the sixth floor of The Rocke-
feller Institute Hospital. Within three years, he succeeciect in
fulfilling the promise he had made to Avery: He recovered a
microorganism that clecomposed the capsule of Type TIT
pneumococcus. He then proceedect to extract anct purify the
enzyme responsible for this activity, and finally he clemon-
strated that administration of the enzyme would protect rab-
bits or monkeys against usually fatal experimental pneumo-
coccal infection. These impressive laboratory findings were
described in several papers between 1930 anct 1934. The en-
zyme might well have been further purified anct then usect to
treat certain cases of pneumococcal pneumonia in humans,
but the sulfa drugs had just become available for the treat-
ment of this clisease. The capsule-clestroying enzyme Did not
achieve fame as a specific therapeutic agent, but the research
on this material was nevertheless an auspicious beginning of
Dubos's microbiological work.
In his search for a capsule-destroying microbe, Rene used
the soil enrichment technique ant! addect the capsular ma-
terial to various soil samples. When he tract isolated a suitable
organism and maintained it in pure culture in the laboratory,
he made the arresting discovery that the organism producect
the capsule-destroying enzyme only if the capsular material
were included as the sole source of carbohydrate in the cul-
ture medium. He called this phenomenon adaptive, or in-
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40
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
clucecI, enzyme formation, which demonstrates! that a cell has
multiple potentialities that become manifest only when
placed in an environment where it is compeller! to use them.
Rene often referrer] to this discovery as the greatest in-
tellectual satisfaction of his research career. The techniques
in biochemistry ant! genetics to inquire further into this phe-
nomenon were not yet available, but were later user! by his
friends Jacques Monoc3, Francaois Jacob, and Andre Ewoff,
who receiver! the Nobel Prize for their work on this topic.
In the mid-1930s Rene ant! colleagues used the soil en-
richment technique to isolate bacterial enzymes that cle-
stroyed creatinine and enzymes that converted creatine into
creatinine. These materials were used to develop methods for
measuring creatinine in the blood and urine, which had not
been possible up to that time. In 1937 anct 1938 he published
papers on the recovery and partial purification of the enzyme
that degrader! one type of nucleic acid, and he named the
enzyme ribonuclease. He did no further work with the en-
zyme, but it server! as the basis for research by a number of
scientists at The Rockefeller. Moses Kunitz further purifier!
ribonuclease and obtained crystals of this protein. Stanford
Moore and William H. Stein used the highly purifier! ribo-
nuclease as material for their work on amino acid analysis of
proteins, and Bruce Merrifield used ribonuclease in his first
synthesis of an enzyme discoveries for which these three
men were awarded Nobel Prizes in chemistry.
Dubos's best known and most remarkable achievement
during his microbiology period was the discovery of grami-
ciclin and tyrocidin the first antibiotics systematically culti-
vated from bacteria and proclucecl commercially. Baser! on
his several successes using soil as a source of special orga-
nisms, he searched for a microbe that wouIct produce a sub-
stance capable of destroying intact bacteria. His search cul-
minatec! in the isolation of Bacillus breves, from which he
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RENE JULES DUBOS
141
extracted the active soluble principle he callect tyrothricin
that contains two substances that attack gram-positive orga-
nisms. Tyrocidin kills bacteria in vitro but not in viva ant! is
toxic to animals; gramiciclin is active both in the test tube and
in animals but is limited to external use (superficial wounds,
bovine mastitis) because it causes hemolysis. Papers on these
substances published between 1939 ant! 1941 established
their structure, antibacterial activity, and clinical efficacy.
In this way, Dubos provided methods through which
other antibiotics came to be discovered. His work stimulated
Howard Florey and Ernst Chain to look further into Alex-
ander FIeming's penicillin, which was found in 1928 but nei-
.
ther purified nor obtained in large enough quantities for test-
ing. It also stimulated Waksman, Rene's former teacher, to
undertake a search that led to streptomycin. Fleming, Florey,
Chain, ant! Waksman subsequently received Nobel Prizes for
their discoveries. Dubos's antibiotics are not the ones widely
used for the treatment of bacterial infections, yet he was a
true pioneer in the clevelopment of antibiotics the most mo-
mentous development in the history of meclical science.
By 1941, when Rene was barely forty, the publicity sur-
rounding his discovery of tyrothricin tract made him a famous
man. In that year, he reacher! the highest rank, full member,
at The Rockefeller Institute ant! was one of fifteen members
elected to the National Academy of Sciences. He was not,
however, carried away by the notion that antibiotics were
wonder drugs that would eliminate all disease. In a 1942 ar-
ticle in the Annual Review of Biochemistry, he prectictect that
bacteria wouIct adapt themselves to these ctrugs and that new
strains wouIcl become resistant. Having opened the pathway
for the discovery of antibiotics, he no longer found it intel-
lectually challenging nor was he interested in devoting his
life to finding more of them. He felt this type of research was
more suitable for pharmaceutical laboratories.
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BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
The fifteen years of this microbiology period were, for
the most part, happy and successful. In 1934 he married
Marie-Louise Bonnet, a French teacher and pianist, and in
1938 he became an American citizen. He sufferer! a third
episode of rheumatic fever, however, following a severe strep-
tococcal infection. In 1940- under the stress of family prob-
lems related to worIc! War IT his wife developed pulmonary
tuberculosis, a reactivation of a childhood infection. Her con-
dition grew progressively worse, and Rene, hoping that she
would benefit from a change of environment, accepted a pro-
fessorship at Harvard Medical School. But Marie-Louise diect
in the spring of 1942, and Rene went to Boston suffering
from the severe emotional shock of her death.
As George Fabyan Professor of Comparative Pathology
and Tropical Medicine at Harvard from 1942 to 1944, Rene
had minimal teaching and administrative responsibilities and
could concentrate on research. His letter of acceptance stated
his wish to study the physiology and immunology of the tu-
bercle bacillus and tuberculosis infection an investigation
stimulated by the illness ant! death of his wife. The critical
wartime need! for tropical medicine research, however, lecT
Rene to work on the problem of bacilIary dysentery.
While in Boston, the Lowell Institute invites! him to de-
liver a series of public lectures on science. The lectures were
published as his first book, The Bacterial Cell in Its Relation to
Problems of Virulence, Immunity, and Chemotherapy (19451. Writ-
ten in a somewhat philosophical manner (perhaps a reflec-
tion of the intellectual atmosphere at Harvard), this classic
text reviewer! the biochemistry and variability of bacteria and
analyzed the mechanisms of pathogenesis in terms of incli-
vidual components of the bacterial cell.
Despite many invigorating friendships and pleasant social
occasions, Rene was lonely, and Boston became linked in his
mind with the loss of his wife. When Thomas Rivers and
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RENE JULES DUBOS
HONORS AND DISTINCTIONS
AWARDS AND MEMBERSHIPS
151
1940 John Phillips Memorial Award, American College of Phy-
slclans
1941
1945 Member, National Academy of Sciences
1945 Member, The Century Association
1946 Gordon Wilson Medal, American Clinical and Climatologi-
cal Association
1948 Lasker Award, American Public Health Association
1948 Member, Practitioners' Society, New York City
1950 Member, Academia de Ciencias Fisicas, Matematicas, y Nat-
urales, Venezuela
E. Mead Johnson Award, American Academy of Pediatrics
1951 Trudeau Medal, National Tuberculosis Association
1954 Member, American Philosophical Society
1958 Howard Taylor Ricketts Prize, University of Chicago
1960 Fellow, American Academy of Arts and Sciences
1960 Passano Foundation Award
1960 Robert Koch Medal, Robert Koch Foundation, Berlin
1963 Phi Beta Kappa Award in Science for The Unseen World
1965 Phi Beta Kappa Award in Science for Man Adapting
1966 Arches of Science Award, Pacific Science Center
1968 Two Cultures Award, Flushing High School, New York City
1969 Pulitzer Prize for Nonfiction for So Human an Animal
1969 Benjamin Franklin Fellow, Royal Society of Arts
1970 Harold Terry Clark Medal, Cleveland Museum of Natural
History
1972 Frances K. Hutchinson Medal, Garden Club of America
1972 Prix de l'Institut de la Vie, Paris
1973 Bradford Washburn Award, Boston Museum of Science
1975 Cullum Geographical Medal, American Geographic Society
1976 Tyler Ecology Award, Pepperdine University
1979 Wilder Penfield Award, Vanier Institute of the Family
1979 Member, American Academy and Institute of Arts and Let-
ters
HONORARY DEGREES
Forty-one honorary degrees, including three honorary doctorates
of medicine, from thirty American and eleven foreign institu-
tions, 1941 through 1981
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152
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY
The following list contains all of Rene Dubos's books and mono-
graphs, but only a selection of his laboratory research journal pub-
lications, essays, and lectures. A complete annotated bibliography
is being prepared by Carol L. Moberg to be published by The
Rockefeller University Press.
1928
Influence of environmental conditions on the activities of cellulose
decomposing organisms in the soil. Ecology, 9: 12-27.
The decomposition of cellulose by aerobic bacteria. l. Bacteriol',
15:223-34.
1929
The initiation of growth of certain facultative anaerobes as related
to oxidation-reduction processes in the medium. J. Exp. Med.,
49:559-73.
1930
With Oswald T. Avery. The specific action of a bacterial enzyme on
pneumococci of type III. Science, 72:151-52.
1931
With Oswald T. Avery. Decomposition of the capsular polysaccha-
ride of pneumococcus type III by a bacterial enzyme. J. Exp.
Med., 54:51-71.
With Oswald T. Avery. The protective action of a specific enzyme
against type III pneumococcus infection in mice. J. Exp. Med.,
54:73-89.
1932
Factors affecting the yield of specific enzyme in cultures of the
bacillus decomposing the capsular polysaccharide of type III
pneumococcus. I. Exp. Med., 55:377-91.
1935
Studies on the mechanism of production of a specific bacterial en-
zyme which decomposes the capsular polysaccharide of type III
pneumococcus. J. Exp. Med., 62:259-69.
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RENE JULES DUBOS
1936
153
With Karl Meyer and Elizabeth M. Smyth. Action of the lytic prin-
ciple of pneumococcus on certain tissue polysaccharides. Proc.
Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 34:816-18.
1937
With Benjamin F. Miller. Determination by a specific, enzymatic
method of the creatinine content of blood and urine from nor-
mal and nephritic individuals. J. Biol. Chem., 121:457-64.
With Benjamin F. Miller. The production of bacterial enzymes ca-
pable of decomposing creatinine. l. Biol. Chem., 121 :429-45.
1938
With R. H. S. Thompson. The decomposition of yeast nucleic acid
by a heat-resistant enzyme. i. Biol. Chem., 124:501-10.
With Robert H. S. Thompson. The isolation of nucleic acid and
nucleoprotein fractions from pneumococci. i. Biol. Chem.,
125:65-74.
1939
Studies on a bactericidal agent extracted from a soil bacillus. J. Exp.
Med., 70:1-17.
1940
The adaptive production of enzymes by bacteria. Bact. Rev., 4:
1-16.
The effect of specific agents extracted from soil microorganisms
upon experimental bacterial infections. Ann. Intern Med.,
13:2025-37.
1941
With Rollin D. Hotchkiss. The production of bactericidal sub-
stances by aerobic sporulating bacilli. I. Exp. Med., 73:629-40.
With R. B. Little, R. D. Hotchkiss, C. W. Bean, and W. T. Miller.
The use of gramicidin and other agents for the elimination of
the chronic form of bovine mastitis. Am. I. Vet. Res., 2:305-12.
With Rollin D. Hotchkiss. The isolation of bactericidal substances
from cultures of Bacillus breves. ]. Biol. Chem., 141:155-62.
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154
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
1942
With Rollin D. Hotchkiss. Origin, nature, and properties of gram-
icidin and tyrocidine (Mary Scott Newbold Lecture). Trans.
Stud. Coll. Physicians Philadelphia, 1 0 (series 4~: 1 1-1 9.
With Rollin D. Hotchkiss and Alvin F. Coburn. The effect of gram-
icidin and tyrocidine on bacterial metabolism. I. Biol. Chem.,
146:421-26.
1943
With June H. Straus and Cynthia Pierce. The multiplication of
bacteriophage in viva and its protective effect against an exper-
imental infection in Shigella dysenter~ae. ]. Exp. Med., 78:161-
68.
1944
Trends in the study and control of infectious diseases. Proc. Am.
Philos. Soc., 88:208-13.
1945
The Bacterial Cell in its Relation to Problems of Virulence, Immunity
and Chemotherapy. Harvard University Monographs in Medicine
and Public Health, Number 6. Cambridge: Harvard University
Press.
1946
With Bernard D. Davis. Factors affecting the growth of tubercle
bacilli in liquid media. I. Exp. Med., 83:409-23.
With Bernard D. Davis, Gardner Middlebrook, and Cynthia Pierce.
The effect of water soluble lipids on the growth and biological
properties of tubercle bacilli. Am. Rev. Tuberc., 54:204-12.
1947
The effect of lipids and serum albumin on bacterial growth. l. Exp.
Med., 85:9-22.
With Cynthia Pierce and Gardner Middlebrook. Infection of mice
with mammalian tubercle bacilli in Tween-albumin liquid me-
dium. I. Exp. Med., 86: 159-74.
With Gardner Middlebrook and Cynthia Pierce. Virulence and
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RENE JULES DUBOS
155
morphological characteristics of mammalian tubercle bacilli. l.
Exp. Med., 86: 175-84.
With Bernard D. Davis. The binding of fatty acids by serum albu-
min, a protective growth factor in bacteriological media. l. Exp.
Med., 86:215-28.
1948
Bacterial and Mycotic Infections of Man. Philadelphia: Lippincott. (2d
ed. 1952; 3d ed. twith James G. Hirsch] 1958; 4th ed. twith
James G. Hirsch] 19651.
With Gardner Middlebrook. The effect of wetting agents on the
growth of tubercle bacilli. I. Exp. Med., 88:81-88.
1950
Louis Pasteur: Free Lance of Science. Boston: Little, Brown. Re-
printed: New York: Charles Scribner's Sons (1976~; New York:
Da Capo Press ~ 1986~.
With Frank Fenner and Cynthia H. Pierce. Properties of a culture
of BCG grown in liquid media containing Tween 80 and the
filtrate of heated serum. Am. Rev. Tuberc., 61:66-76.
With Frank Fenner. Production of BCG vaccine in a liquid medium
containing Tween 80 and a soluble fraction of heated human
serum. I. Exp. Med., 91:261-84.
1952
Microbiology in fable and art. Bacterial. Rev., 16:145-51.
With Jean Dubos. The White Plague: Tuberculosis, Man, and Society.
Boston: Little, Brown. Reprinted: New Brunswick, N.T.: Rut-
gers University Press (1986~.
With James G. Hirsch. The effect of spermine on tubercle bacilli.
I. Exp. Med., 95:191-208.
1953
With Cynthia H. Pierce and Werner B. Schaefer. Multiplication
and survival of tubercle bacilli in the organs of mice. J. Exp.
Med., 97: 189-206.
Effect of ketone bodies and other metabolites on the survival and
multiplication of staphylococci and tubercle bacilli. I. Exp.
Med., 98: 145 -55.
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156
BIOGRAPHICAL MEMOIRS
The philosopher's search for health. Trans. Assoc. Am. Physicians,
66:31-41.
The gold-headed cane in the laboratory. In: National Institutes of
Health AnnualLectures, pp.89-102. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Gov-
ernment Printing Once.
1954
Biochemical Determinants of Microbial Diseases. Harvard University
Monographs in Medicine and Public Health, Number 13. Cam-
bridge: Harvard University Press.
With James G. Hirsch. The antimycobacterial activity of a peptide
preparation derived from calf thymus. I. Exp. Med., 99:55-63.
1955
Second thoughts on the germ theory. Sci. Am., 192:31-35.
Effect of metabolic factors on the susceptibility of albino mice to
experimental tuberculosis. l. Exp. Med., 101:59-84.
1956
With Russell W. Schaedler. Reversible changes in the susceptibility
of mice to bacterial infections. I. Exp. Med., 104:53-84.
With Cynthia H. Pierce and Werner B. Schaefer. Differential char-
acteristics in vitro and in viva of several substrains of BCG. Am.
Rev. Tuberc. Pulm. Dis., 74:655-717.
1957
With Russell W. Schaedler. Effects of cellular constituents of my-
cobacteria on the resistance of mice to heterologous infections.
J. Exp. Med., 106:703-26.
1958
Infection into disease. Perspect. Biol. Med., 1:425-35.
Tulipomania and the benevolent virus. In: Perspectives in Virology,
ed. M. Pollard, pp. 291-99. New York: Harper and Row.
With Russell W. Schaedler. Effect of dietary proteins and amino
acids on the susceptibility of mice to bacterial infections. I. Exp.
Med., 108:69-81.
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RENE JULES DUBOS
1959
157
Problems in bioclimatology. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 45:1687-
96.
Medical utopias. Daedalus, 88:410-24.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
tubercle bacilli