The processes through which new technologies are created, commercialized, and adopted involve many different organizations and an extensive flow of information. Technology transfer within and among organizations underpins the translation of science into product, as well as the adoption of new products and processes. The process of technology transfer is complex and information-intensive. It is based to a large extent on the ability of individuals (and groups of individuals) involved in research to interact with those responsible for technology commercialization.

When these interactions do not take place, technology transfer is impeded. Geographic distance between firms is one reason technology transfer may be slow or nonexistent. Even within a single firm, large and separate divisions for research, manufacturing, and development can pose problems to effective technology transfer. Many of the barriers associated with transferring technology are unrelated to government agency policy, the level of funding for university research, or the lack of appropriate institutions and mechanisms to facilitate technology transfer.

The geographic and organizational barriers to technological transfer include divided missions, responsibilities, and rewards. Trying to correct these problems by creating new mechanisms or institutions that are both geographically and organizationally distinct from technology sources or targets is not likely to be effective. There are also psychological barriers to technology transfer. The "not-invented-here" syndrome is a significant obstacle to technology transfer within and among university, government, and industry laboratories. A lack of continuous communication between scientists and engineers, or between development and manufacturing engineers, can also inhibit technology transfer, for example.

An alternative view of technology transfer that has influenced recent federal government initiatives is the so-called linear model, which offers an incomplete and distorted view. The linear model of technology development suggests that ideas originate in pure research; are transferred to applied research; and from there, go on to advanced development and manufacturing. This model drives technology transfer programs in ways that do little to match the needs of industry. With the linear model, progress comes in great steps. In some instances, there are indeed breakthrough innovations that either create new industries or transform existing ones. Many of the technology transfer programs established by Congress and implemented by federal agencies have been modeled on this technology "push" framework. It assumes that federal laboratories funded by the government, for example, operate in this manner and are repositories for technologies that are of great value to industry. This is an incorrect assumption.¹⁴ In semi-