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MICROGRAVITY RESEARCH IN SUPPORT OF TECHNOLOGIES
FOR THE HUMAN EXPLORATION AND DEVELOPMENT
OF SPACE AND PLANETARY BODIES
Committee on Microgravity Research
Space Studies Board
Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C.
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NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National
Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National
Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report
were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
Support for this project was provided by Contract NASW 96013 between the National Academy of Sciences and
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations
expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the sponsor.
International Standard Book Number 0-309-06491-0
Cover design by Penny Margolskee.
Copies of this report are available from
Space Studies Board
National Research Council
2101 Constitution Avenue, NW
Washington, DC 20418
Copyright 2000 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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National Acaclemy of Sciences
National Acaclemy of Engineering
Institute of Meclicine
National Research Council
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in
scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general
welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to
advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy
of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a
parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members,
sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy
of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and
recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. William A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent
members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute
acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the
federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I.
Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad commu-
nity of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government.
Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating
agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the
government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Acad-
emies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. William A. Wulf are chairman and vice chairman,
respectively, of the National Research Council.
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COMMITTEE ON MICROGRAVITY RESEARCH
RAYMOND VISKANTA, Purdue University, Chair
ROBERT A. ALTENKIRCH, Mississippi State University
ROBERT L. ASH, Old Dominion University
ROBERT J. BAYUZICK, Vanderbilt University
CHARLES W. CARTER, JR., University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
GRETCHEN J. DARLINGTON,* Baylor College of Medicine
RICHARD T. LAHEY, JR., Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
RALPH A. LOGAN, AT&T Bell Laboratories (retired)
FRANKLIN K. MOORE, Cornell University
WILLIAM W. MULLINS, Carnegie Mellon University (emeritus)
ROSALIA N. SCRIPA,* University of Alabama at Birmingham
FORMAN A. WILLIAMS, University of California at San Diego
SANDRA J. GRAHAM, Study Director
ANNE K. SIMMONS, Senior Project Assistant
CATHY GRUBER, Senior Project Assistant (through May 1998)
*Former member.
v
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SPACE STUDIES BOARD
CLAUDE R. CANIZARES, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Chair
MARK R. ABBOTT, Oregon State University
FRAN BAGENAL, University of Colorado
DANIEL N. BAKER, University of Colorado
ROBERT E. CLELAND, University of Washington
GERARD W. ELVERUM, JR.,* TRW Space and Technology Group
MARILYN L. FOGEL, Carnegie Institution of Washington
BILL GREEN, Former Member, U.S. House of Representatives
JOHN H. HOPPS, JR., Rozewell, Georgia
CHRIS J. JOHANNSEN, Purdue University
ANDREW H. KNOLL,* Harvard University
RICHARD G. KRON, University of Chicago
JONATHAN I. LUNINE, University of Arizona
ROBERTA BALSTAD MILLER, Columbia University
GARY J.OLSEN, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
MARY JANE OSBORN, University of Connecticut Health Center
GEORGE A. PAULIKAS, The Aerospace Corporation (retired)
JOYCE E. PENNER, University of Michigan
THOMAS A. PRINCE, California Institute of Technology
PEDRO L. RUSTAN, JR., U.S. Air Force (retired)
GEORGE L. SISCOE, Boston University
EUGENE B. SKOLNIKOFF, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
MITCHELL SOGIN, Marine Biological Laboratory
NORMAN E. THAGARD, Florida State University
ALAN M. TITLE, Lockheed Martin Advanced Technology Center
RAYMOND VISKANTA, Purdue University
PETER W. VOORHEES, Northwestern University
JOHN A. WOOD, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics
JOSEPH K. ALEXANDER, Director
*Former member.
v!
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COMMISSION ON PHYSICAL SCIENCES, MATHEMATICS, AND APPLICATIONS
PETER M. BANKS, Veridian ERIM International, Inc., Co-chair
W. CARL LINEBERGER, University of Colorado, Co-chair
WILLIAM F. BALLHAUS, JR., Lockheed Martin Corporation
SHIRLEY CHIANG, University of California at Davis
MARSHALL H. COHEN, California Institute of Technology
RONALD G. DOUGLAS, Texas A&M University
SAMUEL H. FULLER, Analog Devices, Inc.
JERRY P. GOLLUB, Haverford College
MICHAEL F. GOODCHILD, University of California at Santa Barbara
MARTHA P. HAYNES, Cornell University
WESLEY T. HUNTRESS, JR., Carnegie Institution of Washington
CAROL M. JANTZEN, Westinghouse Savannah River Company
PAUL G. KAMINSKI, Technovation, Inc.
KENNETH H. KELLER, University of Minnesota
JOHN R. KREICK, Sanders, a Lockheed Martin Company (retired)
MARSHA I. LESTER, University of Pennsylvania
DUSA M. McDUFF, State University of New York at Stony Brook
JANET L. NORWOOD, Former Commissioner, U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics
M. ELISABETH PATE-CORNELL, Stanford University
NICHOLAS P. SAMIOS, Brookhaven National Laboratory
ROBERT J. SPINRAD, Xerox PARC (retired)
MYRON F. UMAN, Acting Executive Director (as of August 1999)
NORMAN METZGER, Executive Director (through July 1999)
. .
via
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Preface
The study that is the subject of this report was initiated in early 1996 by a request to the Committee on
Microgravity Research (CMGR) from the leadership of NASA's Microgravity Science and Applications Divi-
sion1 to perform an assessment of scientific and related technological issues facing NASA' s Human Exploration
and Development of Space (HEDS) endeavor. The committee agreed to consider mission enabling and enhancing
technologies that, for development, would require an improved understanding of fluid and material behavior in a
reduced-gravity environment. The committee would then identify opportunities for Microgravity research to
contribute to the understanding of fundamental scientific questions underlying exploration technologies and make
recommendations for some areas of directed research. The study was to be carried out in two phases. The
phase I report, An Initial Review of Microgravity Research in Support of Human Exploration and Development of
Space, was published in 1997 (National Academy Press, Washington, D.C.~. That first report represented a
preliminary look at broad categories of HEDS technologies and contained primarily programmatic recommenda-
tions. For the second phase of the study, the committee undertook a more in-depth examination of a wide range of
specific technologies that might be applicable to human exploration. As no single office at NASA had assembled
a list of critical technologies needed for HEDS, the committee has included the results of its own technology
survey in this report. This survey was carried out by canvassing the available literature, participating in relevant
workshops, and receiving extensive briefings from experts in NASA, industry, and academia. The goal of this
phase II report was to provide specific recommendations for areas of research on fundamental phenomena. The
phenomena recommended for study would be those that had the potential to significantly affect the operation of
future exploration technologies and that needed to be better understood to enable the optimization or eventual
development of those technologies. Since the time frame for technology development from fundamental research
is generally quite long, the committee chose to focus, in this phase II report, primarily on those technology areas
that might be important for space exploration one to three decades into the future.
In its study, the committee utilized a large number of past reports from various sources. Among the previous
National Research Council reports relevant to this study, the committee took particular note of the following:
Now the Microgravity Research Division (MRD).
Six
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x
PREFACE
· Microgravity Research Opportunities for the 1990s, Space Studies Board, National Research Council
(National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1995), reviewed the various research topics currently studied within
the different scientific disciplines of NASA' s microgravity research program and suggested research and program-
matic priorities and recommendations. The report focused on fundamental research that could contribute to basic
advances within individual disciplines.
· Space Technology for the New Century, Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board, National Research
Council (National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1998), examined space technology needs in the post-2000
time frame and identified a few high-risk, high-payoff areas where research investments might benefit a range of
future missions.
· Advanced Technology for Human Support in Space, Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board, National
Research Council (National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1997), reviewed the NASA programs that support
development of technologies for human life support and recommended improved strategies for managing the
development process.
· Space Technology to Meet Future Needs, Aeronautics and Space Engineering Board, National Research
Council (National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., 1987), evaluated national advanced space technology
requirements and recommended a long-term technology program focus for NASA.
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Acknowledgment of Reviewers
This report has been reviewed by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in
accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council's (NRC's) Report Review Committee.
The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the authors and
the NRC in making the published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional
standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The contents of the review comments
and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the
following individuals for their participation in the review of this report:
Rino Buonamici, Westinghouse Hanford Company (retired),
Daniel C. Drucker, University of Florida (emeritus),
Jerry P. Gollub, Haverford College,
Lionel Isenberg, Jet Propulsion Laboratory (retired),
Joseph Miller, TRW Space and Electronics Group (retired),
Simon Ostrach, Case Western Reserve University,
Julio M. Ottino, Northwestern University,
Frederick G. Pohland, University of Pittsburgh,
William C. Reynolds, Stanford University, and
William A. Sirignano, University of California at Irvine.
Although the individuals listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, responsi-
bility for the final content of this report rests solely with the authoring committee and the NRC.
x~
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Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
I INTRODUCTION
Objectives, 9
The Exploration Environment, 10
Radiation in Space, 10
Planetary Bodies, 10
Report Organization and Development, 13
References, 14
II BRIEF DESCRIPTIONS OF PHENOMENA IMPORTANT IN REDUCED GRAVITY
Reference, 19
III SURVEY OF TECHNOLOGIES FOR THE HUMAN EXPLORATION AND
DEVELOPMENT OF SPACE
III.A Power Generation and Storage, 21
Introduction, 21
Power Generation Systems, 23
Solar Power Systems, 23
Chemical Power Systems, 24
Nuclear Power Systems, 26
Energy Storage, 26
Some Selected Subsystem Technologies, 28
Boiler for the Rankine Cycle, 29
Radiators, 29
Proton-Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells, 30
Capillary-Driven, Two-Phase Devices, 31
Vapor-Pressure Pumped Loops, 33
Alkali Metal Thermal-to-Electric Conversion, 33
Summary of the Impact of Reduced Gravity on Selected Subsystems, 34
References, 35
. . .
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9
17
21
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CONTENTS
III.B Space Propulsion, 36
Introduction, 36
Required Space Propulsion Capabilities, 36
Space Propulsion Systems, 37
Chemical Rocket, 37
Nuclear Thermal Rocket, 39
Nuclear Electric Propulsion, 41
Solar Thermal, 43
Solar Sail, 43
Laser Thermal, 43
Laser Sail, 43
Tether, 43
Atmospheric Drag Aeroassist, 44
Major Subsystems, Their Purposes, and Their Sensitivities to Reduced Gravity, 44
Nuclear Fission Reactor, 44
Cryogenic Storage System, 44
Radiator System, 45
Solar Collector, 45
Boiler for a Rankine Cycle, 45
Gas or Vapor Turbines, 45
Liquid Pumps, 46
Compressor, 46
Condenser for a Rankine Cycle, 46
Vaporizer for Propellant, 46
Switch Gear and Electric Power Conditioning, 46
Common Design Elements, 47
General Concerns Regarding Propulsion and Power in Reduced Gravity, 48
Variable Gravity, 48
Transient Operation and Unsteady Processes, 49
Multiphase Flow, 49
Need for Artificial Gravity, 50
Reliability, 50
Nuclear System Development, 50
Summary of the Effect of Reduced Gravity on Selected Subsystems, 50
References, 51
III.C Life Support, 52
Introduction, 52
Atmospheric Homeostasis, 53
Air Revitalization, 53
Carbon Dioxide Removal and Concentration, 54; Reduction of Carbon Dioxide, 55;
Oxygen Generation Water Electrolysis, 55; Oxygen Supply and Regeneration, 55
Temperature and Humidity Control, 55
Trace Biological, Chemical, and Particulate Contaminant Control, 56
Water Homeostasis, 56
Recovery, 56
Solid Waste Management, 57
Food Production, 58
Summary of the Impact of Reduced Gravity on Selected Subsystems, 59
References, 60
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CONTENTS
XV
III.D Hazard Control, 60
Introduction, 60
Fire Protection, 61
Electrical System Fault Diagnostic and Response System, 61
Smoke Detectors, 61
Fire Extinguishers, 61
Postfire Cleanup, 62
Spill Cleanup, 62
Radiation Shielding, 62
Passive Bulk Shielding, 63
Electromagnetic Shielding, 63
Electrostatic Shielding, 64
Chemical Radioprotection, 64
Protection from Chemical and Biological Contamination, 64
Summary of the Effect of Reduced Gravity on Hazard Protection Systems, 65
References, 65
III.E Materials Production and Storage, 66
Introduction, 66
Mining, 68
Volatilization/Condensation, 68
Lunar Volatiles, 69
Extraction of Water Ice on Low-Gravity Surfaces, 70
Material Handling and Transport, 70
Concentration and Beneficiation of Feedstock, 71
Electrostatic and Magnetic Beneficiation, 71
Atmosphere Acquisition (and Compression) Systems, 72
Filtration, 72
Fluid-Based Chemical Processing, 76
Electrochemical Processing, 76
Water Electrolysis, 76; Gas Phase Electrochemical Extraction, 78; Solid Electrolyte
Electrolysis: Extraction of Oxygen from Carbon Dioxide, 79
Molten Metal Electrolysis, 80
Lunar Magma Electrolysis, 80; Production of Aluminum from Orbital Debris, 80
Radio-Frequency Processing of Materials, 80
RF Processing of the Martian Atmosphere, 81; Separation or Filtration of
Solid Particles (Dust) from RF-Processed Gas Streams, 81
Oxygen Production, 82
Sabatier Reactors, 82; Reverse Water Gas Shift, 83; Ilmenite Reduction
as a Source of Oxygen, 84; Pyrolysis, 85
Cryogenic Storage, 86
Summary of the Effect of Reduced Gravity on Selected Subsystems, 87
Additional Processes of Interest, 88
Ejecta Capture from Asteroids and Comets, 88
Mining Helium-3, 90
References, 91
III.F Construction and Maintenance, 94
Introduction, 94
Site Preparation, 95
Construction, 96
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Concreting, 97
Production of Portland Cement, 97
Aggregates, 98
Batching, Mixing, and Placement, 98
Hydration of Cement and Curing, 98
Summary of Gravity Impacts, 99
Direct Manufacturing, 99
Fabrication of Components and Structural Elements from Raw or Processed Materials, 100
Casting in Reduced Gravity, 101
Sintering, 102
Composite Materials, 103
Joining Methods in Space, 103
References, 104
III.G Matrices of Subsystems, Processes, and Phenomena, 106
IV PHENOMENA OF IMPORTANCE IN REDUCED GRAVITY
IV.A General Considerations, 111
Introduction, 111
Gravity and Density Difference, 112
Gravity-Density Coupling in Various Basic Processes, 112
Gravity Regime Boundaries, 113
Research Issues, 114
References, 114
IV.B Interfacial Phenomena, 114
Capillary Equilibrium and Dynamic Forms, 114
Research Issues, 115
Wetting, 115
Research Issues, 117
Marangoni Effect, 117
Research Issues, 119
References, 119
IV.C Multiphase Flow, 120
Phase Separation and Distribution, 121
Other Multiphase Phenomena, 125
Research Issues, 128
Mixing, 128
Research Issues, 129
Multiphase Systems Dynamics, 129
Excursive Instabilities, 130
Pressure-Drop Instabilities, 130
Density-Wave Oscillations, 130
Research Issues, 132
Flow in Porous Media, 134
Research Issues, 135
References, 135
IV.D Heat Transfer, 137
Introduction, 137
Single-Phase Convection, 139
Research Issues, 140
Evaporation Heat Transfer, 140
CONTENTS
111
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CONTENTS
Research Issues, 142
Boiling Heat Transfer, 142
Pool Boiling, 142
Research Issues for Pool Boiling, 145
Flow Boiling, 145
Research Issues for Flow Boiling, 146
Condensation Heat Transfer, 146
Research Issues, 147
Two-Phase Forced Convection Heat Transfer, 147
Research Issues, 148
Solid/Liquid Phase-Change Heat Transfer, 149
Research Issues, 149
Phase-Change Heat Transfer in Porous Media, 150
Research Issues, 151
References, 151
IV.E Solidification, 153
Research Issues, 155
References, 155
IV.F Chemical Transformation, 156
Combustion, 156
Behavior of Combustion Phenomena in Microgravity, 156
Mixture Flammability, 157
Flame Instabilities, 158
Gas Diffusion Flames, 158
Droplet Combustion, 158
Cloud Combustion, 158
Smoldering, 158
Flame Spread, 158
Implications of the Behavior of Combustion Phenomena in
Microgravity for Spacecraft Design and Operations, 159
Affected Technologies, 160
Research Issues, 160
Pyrolysis, 160
Research Issues, 161
Solution Chemistry, 161
References, 161
IV.G Behavior of Granular Materials, 162
Lunar and Martian Regolith, 162
Research Issues, 163
Kinetics of Granular Flow, 164
Research Issues, 165
References, 165
V OTHER CONCERNS
V.A Indirect Effects of Reduced Gravity on Design, 167
Piping Systems, 167
Bearings, 168
Seals, 168
Robots and Articulated Structures, 169
Tanks and Antennas, 169
xvii
167
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. . .
xvit!
Summary of Concerns Prompted by Considering the Indirect Effects
of Reduced Gravity, 170
References, 170
V.B Microgravity Countermeasures, 170
Spacecraft Rotation, 171
Liquid/Vapor Separators, 173
Rotary Fluid Management Device, 173
Free Vortex Separator, 174
Oscillation as a Microgravity Countermeasure, 174
Flow Deflection as a Microgravity Countermeasure, 175
Research on Countermeasures, 175
References, 176
V.C Predictive Models, Reliability, and Probabilistic Risk Assessment, 177
References, 177
VI SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDED RESEARCH ON FUNDAMENTAL PHENOMENA
Basis for Recommendations, 179
Recommended Research, 180
Surface or Interfacial Phenomena, 180
Multiphase Flow and Heat Transfer, 180
Multiphase System Dynamics, 181
Fire Phenomena, 182
Granular Materials, 182
Solidification and Melting, 183
Other Concerns, 183
Reduced-Gravity Countermeasures, 183
Indirect Effects of Reduced Gravity, 184
VII PROGRAMMATIC RECOMMENDATIONS
A Research Approach for the Development of Multiphase Flow and Heat
Transfer Technology, 186
Coordination of Research and Design, 186
Microgravity Research and the International Space Station, 188
Peer Review for Reduced-Gravity Research, 188
References, 188
APPENDIXES
A STATEMENT OF TASK
B SYMBOLS
C GLOSSARY
D ACRONYMS
E BIOGRAPHIES OF COMMITTEE MEMBERS
CONTENTS
179
185
191
193
195
199
203