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NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report and the committee were supported by a grant from the Office of Naval Research and the Oceanographer of the Navy. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the sponsors.
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
National Academy of Sciences
National Academy of Engineering
Institute of Medicine
National Research Council
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
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SYMPOSIUM STEERING COMMITTEE
DAVID BRADLEY, Chair,
Pennsylvania State University, State College
TONY CLARK,
North Carolina State University, Raleigh
ROBERT HOLMAN,
Oregon State University, Corvallis
MARY JANE PERRY,
University of Maine, Orono
Federal Agency Liaisons
MELBOURNE BRISCOE,
Office of Naval Research, Arlington, Virginia
LINDA GLOVER,
Office of the Oceanographer of the Navy, Washington, D.C.
KATHY SHANEBROOK, Chief of Naval Operations,
Washington, D.C.
NRC Staff
ALEXANDRA ISERN, Study Director
DAN WALKER, Symposium Manager and Study Director
SHARI MAGUIRE, Research Assistant
JENNIFER WRIGHT, Senior Project Assistant
OCEAN STUDIES BOARD
KENNETH BRINK, Chair,
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Massachusetts
ALICE ALLDREDGE,
University of California, Santa Barbara
DAVID BRADLEY,
Pennsylvania State University, State College
DAN BROMLEY,
University of Wisconsin, Madison
OTIS BROWN,
University of Miami, Florida
JAMES COLEMAN,
Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge
CORTIS COOPER,
Chevron Petroleum Technology, San Ramon, California
CARL FRIEHE,
University of California, Irvine
RAY HILBORN,
University of Washington, Seattle
EDWARD HOUDE,
University of Maryland, Solomons
JOHN KNAUSS,
University of Rhode Island, Narragansett
ROBERT KNOX,
University of California, San Diego
RAY KRONE,
University of California, Davis
CINDY LEE,
State University of New York, Stony Brook
ROGER LUKAS,
University of Hawaii, Manoa
NANCY MARCUS,
Florida State University, Tallahassee
NEIL OPDYKE,
University of Florida, Gainesville
MICHAEL ORBACH,
Duke University Marine Laboratory, Beaufort, North Carolina
WALTER SCHMIDT,
Florida Geological Survey, Tallahassee
GEORGE SOMERO,
Stanford University, Pacific Grove, California
KARL TUREKIAN,
Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
Staff
MORGAN GOPNIK, Director
EDWARD R. URBAN, JR., Senior Program Officer
DAN WALKER, Senior Program Officer
ALEXANDRA ISERN, Program Officer
SUSAN ROBERTS, Program Officer
ROBIN MORRIS, Financial Associate
LORA TAYLOR, Office Manager
SHARI MAGUIRE, Research Assistant
ANN CARLISLE, Senior Project Assistant
JODI BACHIM, Project Assistant
MEGAN KELLY, Project Assistant
COMMISSION ON GEOSCIENCES, ENVIRONMENT, AND RESOURCES
GEORGE M. HORNBERGER, Chair,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville
RICHARD A. CONWAY,
Union Carbide Corporation (retired), S. Charleston, West Virginia
THOMAS E. GRAEDEL,
Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
THOMAS J. GRAFF,
Environmental Defense Fund, Oakland, California
EUGENIA KALNAY,
University of Oklahoma, Norman
DEBRA KNOPMAN,
Progressive Policy Institute, Washington, D.C.
KAI N. LEE,
Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts
BRAD MOONEY,
J. Brad Mooney Associates, Ltd., Arlington, Virginia
HUGH C. MORRIS,
El Dorado Gold Corporation, Vancouver, British Columbia
H. RONALD PULLIAM,
University of Georgia, Athens
MILTON RUSSELL,
Joint Institute for Energy and Environment and University of Tennessee (Emeritus), Knoxville
THOMAS C. SCHELLING,
University of Maryland, College Park
ANDREW R. SOLOW,
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Massachusetts
VICTORIA J. TSCHINKEL,
Landers and Parsons, Tallahassee, Florida
E-AN ZEN,
University of Maryland, College Park
MARY LOU ZOBACK,
U.S. Geological Survey, Menlo Park, California
Staff
ROBERT M. HAMILTON, Executive Director
GREGORY H. SYMMES, Associate Executive Director
JEANETTE SPOON, Administrative and Financial Officer
DAVID FEARY, Scientific Reports Officer
SANDI FITZPATRICK, Administrative Associate
MARQUITA SMITH, Administrative Assistant/Technology Analyst
Preface
Naval mines present significant challenges for the operational Navy. Between 1950 and 1994, ship casualties caused by mines greatly outnumbered those from all other sources. Mines can essentially halt operations in shallow water, are easily deployed, and are relatively inexpensive to produce. As such, sea mines are rapidly becoming the weapon of choice for many developing countries. Since 1986 the number of mining-capable nations has greatly increased. These increases, along with the low cost and historical success of naval mines, guarantee that these weapons will continue to challenge U.S. Naval forces in the future. As a result, it is important that the warfighter has the tools and training needed to control the battlefield.
The majority of mine warfare occurs in nearshore environments, so an accurate, in-depth knowledge of the oceanographic setting is essential for mission planning and battlefield preparation. As coastal environments are characterized by short-term spatial and temporal variability, the capacity of the warfighter to control the battlefield and ensure mission success is dependent on the ability to understand local oceanography. This ability is greatly enhanced by continued dialogue between the academic community and naval operators to ensure research advances meet the needs of the mine warfighter. Recently, there has been rapid progress in techniques for oceanographic data collection and interpretation. Incorporation of these and future research developments into mine warfare operations will help guarantee the mine warfare community's ability to dominate nearshore operations.
KENNETH H. BRINK
OCEAN STUDIES BOARD, CHAIR
Acknowledgments
The highly successful Symposium on Oceanography for Mine Warfare was a collaborative effort of many individuals from both the Navy and academia. Thus, the content of this report reflects input from a number of individuals, not just the steering committee. In particular, the steering committee would like to acknowledge the assistance of those persons who led working group discussions: R. Beach and L. Frailey (surf zone), A. Fuller (very shallow water), and C. Gunderson (deep water) and those persons who recorded session notes: C. Weilert (surf zone), L. Fry (very shallow water), T. Yoder (shallow water), and C. A. Blain (deep water). The steering committee is also grateful for the assistance of the attendees and experts who prepared background materials that helped to set the stage for later symposium discussions: CDR J. Brown, CDR F. Garcia, LCDR M. Null, and D. Todoroff. The steering committee would also like to recognize the persons involved with the organization and development of the war game: CDR F. Garcia (NO96), CDR T. Hodgson (Naval War College), and CDR M. Shumaker (Office of Naval Intelligence).
In addition to the support and contribution of the many attendees, experts, and individuals listed above, the steering committee would like to acknowledge the efforts of Rear Admiral D. R. Conley, as well as the officers, enlisted personnel, and civilian staff of the Ingleside Mine Warfare Facility and Corpus Christi Naval Air Station, the Office of Naval Research, the Office of the Oceanographer of the Navy, and the Naval Oceanographic Office. Without the help and support of these individuals and groups, this symposium and the resulting report would not have been possible.
For her assistance in data and information gathering, the steering committee would also like to extend its thanks to Constance Carter at the Library of Congress.
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the NRC's Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making the published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their participation in the review of this report: Stephen Boss (University of Arkansas), Peter Howd (University of South Florida), Jules Jaffe (Scripps Institution of Oceanography), Brad Mooney (J. Brad Mooney Associates, Ltd.), Richard Stemberg (University of Washington), and Glen Wheless (Old Dominion University). While the individuals listed above have provided constructive comments and suggestions, it must be emphasized that responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.