1997). “Races” are socially meaningful groupings linked to the structure of society; different races have differential access to societal resources and rewards. Although there is considerable overlap between race and SES, race reflects more than SES; and fully understanding racial differences in health will require researchers to explicitly consider the role of racism in health and society. Racism incorporates ideologies of superiority, negative attitudes and beliefs toward racial outgroups, and differential treatment of members of those groups both by individuals and by social institutions. Racism has been a fundamental organizing principle within American society and has played a major role in shaping major social institutions and policies (Omi and Winant, 1986; Quadagno, 1994).

Table 14–14 presents data from the 1990 General Social Survey (GSS) based on White Americans’ prejudgments and perceptions about other White and non-White groups—Blacks, Hispanics, Asians, Jews, and Southern Whites (Davis and Smith, 1990). The Black column indicates that substantial proportions of Whites endorsed negative stereotypes of Blacks. Forty-four percent of the White population responding to the survey believe that most Blacks are lazy; 56 percent believe most Blacks prefer to live off welfare, and 50 percent believe most Blacks are prone to violence. Relatively small percentages of Whites were willing to endorse positive stereotypes of Blacks. Only 17 percent believe most Blacks are hard working, only 20 percent believe most Blacks are intelligent, only 13 percent believe most Blacks prefer to be self-supporting, and only 15 percent believe most Blacks are not prone to violence. Twenty-eight to 45 percent opted for the “Neither” category for each choice. It is impossible to know the extent to which the desire to give socially acceptable and nonracist answers contributed to this pattern of response. It is instructive, though, that a large percentage of Whites view Blacks so much more negatively than they view themselves. Hispanics tend to be viewed twice as negatively as Asians; Jews tend to be viewed more positively than Whites in general; and southern Whites tend to be viewed more negatively than non-southern Whites. In general, the data show that a significant percentage of Whites view other groups more negatively than themselves and view Blacks more negatively than any other group.

Historically, ideologies and attitudes about racial groups have been translated into policies and societal arrangements that limit the opportunities and life chances of stigmatized groups. The disproportionate representation of minority groups at the low end of the socioeconomic spectrum in the United States reflects the successful implementation of social policies designed to limit societal benefits to socially marginalized groups.