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Index
A
AARP. See American Association of Retired Persons audit study
ACM. See Association for Computing Machinery
ACWIA. See American Competitiveness and Workforce Improvement Act
ADEA. See Age Discrimination in Employment Act
Adjunct faculty drawn from industry, making greater use of, 236, 294
Age
and employment in the IT workforce, 7-8
distribution of Category 1 IT, Category 2 IT, and professional specialty workers, 141
of the Category 2 IT workforce, 86
Age Discrimination in Employment Act (ADEA), 136-138
Age-related discrimination, 140-146
avoiding, 288
definition of, 136
impact on tightness in the IT labor market, 150
legal dimensions of, 136-138
legal theories for showing, 137-138
relieving perceptions of, 298n
American Association of Retired Persons (AARP) audit study, on possible age-related discrimination against older IT workers, 146-148, 150
American Competitiveness and Workforce Improvement Act (ACWIA), 161, 167-169
American Society for Training and Development (ASTD), 265
Assessment to expand the pool of immediately available workers, 9-10, 201-212
accounting for unintended bias, 204-205
effectiveness of assessment techniques and the role of job analysis, 205-209
future trends in assessment of IT workers, 211-212
legal dimensions of assessment, 209-211
research needed into, 302
structured methods for, 10, 206-207, 287-288
Associate's degrees, awarded in computer science, 82
Association for Computing Machinery (ACM), 232, 235n, 247, 311
ASTD. See American Society for Training and Development
Attracting IT workers, 188-201
improved recruitment and retention, 194-199
increased use of overtime, 189-194
Attributes of IT workers, essential versus optional, 199-201
Availability of foreign IT workers to U.S. firms, 177-184
competition for foreign workers, 178-179
locating IT work abroad, 179-184
B
Baccalaureate level, formal education at, 10-11, 228-240
Bachelor's degrees
awarded in computer science, xi, 82
Category 1 IT workforce majority holding, 67-68
two-year turnover rates for IT and non-IT workers with, 95
Barriers to employers providing enough training, 297-298
Basic concepts supporting IT, understanding of needed for IT work, 56
Being Fluent with Information Technology, 292
Biotechnology, 317-330
and bioinformatics, 319-321, 328
global nature of sector, 321
impact on the economy, 321-324
number of companies and their valuation, 322-323
relationship to the pharmaceutical industry, 322-323
short history of, 317-318
similarities to and differences from IT industries, 329-330
Biotechnology Industry Organization, 318
Biotechnology workforce, 324-329
foreign worker participation in, 327
growth in, 324
trends in, 327-329
Black colleges and universities
differences in the number of science, engineering, and IT-related graduates, from majority institutions, 238-239
lessons from, in promoting IT-related study, 238-239
BLS. See Bureau of Labor Statistics
Bridging the Gap, 231n, 342
BSFs. See Business supply firms
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), 44, 79n, 84, 86, 101, 104-105, 338
IT labor market survey data from, 140-146, 301
job projections from, 110, 120-122
Bureau of National Affairs, 96n
Business. See IT sector; U.S. IT firms
Business models, for third-party use of nonimmigrant foreign labor, 166-167
Business supply firms (BSFs), model for third-party use of nonimmigrant foreign labor, 167
C
C++ programmers, 142, 262, 264
Carnegie Technology Education (CTE), 248
Category 1 IT work, 4-7, 47-48
defining, 48
Category 1 IT workforce, 51-54, 66-68
age distribution of, 141
average annual increase in income for, 71
changes in employment for, 65
compensation in, 68-79
demographics of, 66-68
difficulty understanding composition of non-U.S. citizen portion of, 67
distribution by employment sector, 68
distribution by size of employer, 83
estimates of size of, 63, 331-343
majority holding at least a bachelor's degree, 67-68
numbers growing, 61-65
numbers in industrial employment by size of company, 83
older and younger workers in, 142-146
Category 2 IT work, 4-7
defining, 49
Category 2 IT workforce, 49, 51-54, 85-90
age distribution of, 86, 141
annual changes in mean wages for, 90
characteristics of, 85-90
educational background of, 85-86
growth in mean wages, 90
percentage of females, 90
percentage of foreign-born, 87
percentage of whites, 87, 90
rapidly growing occupational groups within, 85
Central Intelligence Agency, 159
Certification
industrial, 11, 251-253
vendor, 16
Change
accelerating pace of technological, 24-25
broad-scale social, 37
incremental vs. paradigmatic, 259
in employment for Category 1 computer occupations, 65
in employment for selected science and technology occupations, 65
in mean wages for selected Category 2 occupations, annual, 90
in median annual salary for World Wide Web/Internet developers by region, 77
in median salaries for selected information technology occupations, annual, 75
Characteristics of H-1B visa holders in the U.S., 164
Characteristics of the Category 1 IT workforce, 51-54, 61-65, 66-68, 79-84
Characteristics of the Category 2 IT workforce, 85-90
rapidly growing occupational groups, 85
Characteristics of the IT workforce, 60-90
educational background, 79-82
in the hardware subsector within information technology, 84-87
size of, 60-61
Characterizing the workforce problem, 92-132
context, 92
inference of a worker shortage, 97-108
perspective on the federal government and workforce issues in IT, 113-119
projections for the future, 119-131
reports of difficulty in hiring, 92-97
segmentation of demand for IT workers, 110-112
view of the IT labor market, 109
Chief Information Officers (CIO) Council, 18, 116-118, 310-311
Clearing of the IT labor markets, factors impeding, 108
COBOL programmers, 94, 142
COCOMO model, for productivity, 59
Cognitive theory, 57, 270
Collaboration, remote, 184
Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science, Engineering, and Technology Development, recommendations from the report of, 216-218
Communications networks, 26-27, 53
jobs opening in, 110, 120
Community college level
formal education at, 11, 245-251
programs in biotechnology, 326
Compensation issues. See also Salaries; Wages
in the Category 1 IT workforce, 68-79
in inferring a worker shortage, 102-107
ranking of by workers, 4
Competition
for foreign workers, 178-179
in the IT sector, 29
with the private sector for the federal government IT workforce, 113-114
Computer Industry Salary Survey, 72
Computer programmers
annual increases in mean income for, 76
number of hours worked per week, 190
Computer Science Accreditation Board (CSAB), 232
Computer science education, 10-11, 220-253; see also Formal IT education
baccalaureate level, 229-233
community college level, 247-249
Computer systems analysts and scientists
annual increases in mean income for, 76
number of hours worked per week, 190
percent who worked more than 40 hours per week by size of firm, 192
Computer Technology Industry Association (CompTIA), 251
Contract teaching faculty. See also Project-based employment
making greater use of, 236, 294
Council on Competitiveness, 286n
CPS. See Current Population Survey
CSAB. See Computer Science Accreditation Board
Current Population Survey (CPS), 6, 40, 61-66, 70, 74, 79, 85, 103, 189, 191, 332-333, 335-337
estimate of employment and unemployment in computer and computer-related occupations, 300, 336, 338, 341, 343
Cyber security needs, 118
D
Data mining, 320
Data on displaced workers, 145, 146
Data on IT employment
from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, 140-146
collecting better, 17, 300-301
from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 139-140
need for better, xvi, 7, 278-279
DataMasters, 72-74
Degrees
granted in computer science and computer engineering, 81
held by U.S.-born workers, 67n
professionals with advanced, among permanent residents in foreign worker programs, 158
Demographics of the Category 1 IT workforce, 66-68
Department of Commerce, 29, 35, 68, 311, 336, 341
Department of Defense (DOD), 113-114, 116-117, 308-309
Department of Energy (DOE), 117
Department of Labor (DOL), 158-159, 165, 170-171, 173-174, 208, 267, 300, 305-306
Department of the Treasury, 113-114, 118
Dictionary of Occupational Titles, 208
"Digital convergence," 27
"Digital divide," 215
Digital technologies, 23
Disequilibrium. See Market disequilibrium models
Disincentives, for employer-provided formal training, 255-257
Displaced workers, 145-146
Displacement rates, 142n
Distance learning, 253-254
E
E-commerce, 36-37, 94
Educational background, 10-11, 297-298. See also Computer science education; Formal IT education; IT education
of the Category 1 IT workforce, 79-82
of the Category 2 IT workforce, 85-86
of U.S. K-12 students, 222-223
Educational institutions. See also Black colleges and universities; Computer science education; Degrees; Formal IT education; Training IT workers
alignment of educational programs in IT with employer needs, 16, 292-294
faculty recruitment pools, 294-295
formal IT education for students who concentrate in non-IT-related disciplines, 16, 295-296
funding formulas for state-supported, 301
IT fluency in K-12 and in colleges, 292
secondary mathematics education, 291-292
training capacity of, 108
EEOC. See Equal Employment Opportunity Commission
Efficient use of IT workers, improving, 188-201
improved recruitment and retention, 194-199
increased use of overtime, 189-194
making clearer distinctions between essential and optional attributes, 199-201
Electrical and electronic technicians, numbers growing, 85
Empirical evidence on the labor market experiences of older and younger IT workers, 139-147
AARP audit study, 146-147
data from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 139-140
labor market survey data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, 140-146
Employees. See Displaced workers; Female workers; Foreign workers; IT workers; IT workforce; Male workers; Older workers; Skilled workers; Younger workers
Employer needs, better aligning educational programs in IT with, 292-294
Employer-provided formal training, disincentives for, 255-257
Employers of IT workers, 199-201
avoiding discriminatory behavior, 288
barriers to providing enough training, 297-298
desire to minimize labor costs, 104
direct grants to, for training, 298-299
distribution of Category 1 IT workers, by size of, 83
perspective on the H-1B visa program, 172
recruiting practices, 287
relationships with universities and other sources of talent, 287
slow response time by, 108
use of structured assessment methods, 287-288
worker quality of life, 288-289
Employment. See IT work; IT workers; Jobs in the IT sector; Project-based employment; Unemployment
End-user programming, 127
Enterprise Resource Programs (ERPs), 110
Enterprise-wide software systems, 127
Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC)
complaints filed, 139
data on possible age-related discrimination against older IT workers, 139-140
EEO offices, 147n
judgments on cases alleging age-related discrimination, 140
Equilibrium. See also Market disequilibrium models
time to reach, in inferring a worker shortage, 107-108
ERPs. See Enterprise Resource Programs
Estimating
the Category 1 IT workforce, 331-339
demanding accuracy in, 130
employed and unemployed workers in computer and computer-related occupations, 338
employment in computer and computer-related occupations, 341
the larger IT workforce, 339-343
the population of electrical, electronic, and computer engineers in government data sets, 337
the size of the IT workforce, 331-343
Existing IT workforce
attracting and using IT workers more efficiently, 188-201
engaging, 9-10
expanding the pool of immediately available workers, 201-216
making more effective use of, 188-219
Experience
impact on productivity, 59
role as a hiring filter, 203
role in IT work, 56-60
F
Faculty recruitment pools
complements to regular tenure-track faculty, 236
expanding, 16, 294-295
upgrading skills of existing faculty, 294-295
use of adjunct faculty drawn from industry, 294
use of faculty in other departments to assume some of the teaching load, 295
Fair Labor Standards Act, 193n
FASB. See Financial Accounting Standards Board
Federal Cyber Corps, 18, 116, 118
Federal government IT workforce issues, 113-119
competition with the private sector, 113-114
concerns expressed by government contractors, 118-119
coping with tightness, 18, 116-117
flexibility for contractors, 310
incentives, 114-116
recruitment and retention issues, 116
remuneration and recruiting methods, 308-309
resources for training, 309
security, 117-118
working conditions, 309
Financial Accounting Standards Board (FASB), 106
Flexible working conditions, 116
Foreign facilities, investment in by the IT industry, 181
Foreign students' ("F") visas, 162, 241
Foreign-worker programs
"Extraordinary ability" workers, priority granted to, 157-158
H-1B visa program, 171-177
in the United States, 157-170
issues regarding, 170-178
permanent residence program, 170-171
permanent residents in, 157-160
temporary nonimmigrant workers in, 160-170
Foreign workers in the biotechnology workforce, 326
Foreign workers in the IT workforce, 8-9, 152-187
availability to U.S. firms, 177-184
Category 2 IT workforce percentage, 87
cost savings using, 186
impact on the U.S. economy and workforce, 152-155
incentives for, 195n
interaction with locating work offshore, 185
in the United States, 156-177
numbers overall, 156-157
Formal IT education, 10-11, 220-254
and type of IT work, 54-55
distance learning, 253-254
for students who concentrate in non-IT-related disciplines, 295-296
higher education, 228-251
industry certification, 251-253
secondary education, 221-228
Forsythe list, 235n, 237n
FORTRAN programmers, 142
Future projections for the IT workforce, 23-24, 119-131
project-based employment, 123-126
prospects for improvements in productivity, 126-131
quantitative outlook, 120-122
relevant time horizons, 119-120
skills for the future, 122-123
G
Gates Foundation, 235n
Gender factors. See Female workers; Male workers
Genentech, 317
General Agreement on Trade in Services, 161n
Geographical issues
in the biotechnology workforce, 327
in the IT workforce, 111
Government contractors. See also Project-based employment
concerns expressed by, 118-119
effective use of, 18, 310
Grants, direct, to employers for training, 298-299
Green-card process, 18, 158-160
research needed into streamlining, 303-307
Greenspan, Alan, 40, 155n
Groups. See Occupational groups; Underrepresented groups
Growth
in mean wages for the Category 2 IT workforce, 90
in the biotechnology workforce, 324
in the Category 1 IT workforce, 61-65
in total compensation for IT workers, 106
H
H-1B visa holders
characteristics of U.S., 164
numbers of temporary nonimmigrant workers in foreign worker programs, 161-168
plausible scenario for dilemma of, 174
H-1B visa program, 17-18, 171-177. See also Green-card process
employer perspective on, 172
investigations of alleged violations of, 175-176n
worker perspective on, 172-173, 175
H-1B visas
making more "portable," 18, 304
numbers granted to IT workers, 164n
pros and cons of changes to levels of, 8-9, 178
requirements for, 168-169
Hardware subsector, within information technology, 25, 84-87
HBCUs. See Historically black colleges and universities
High-technology sector
economics of, 32, 35-38
rise of, 32-35
training opportunities in, 260-261
Higher education in IT
baccalaureate level, 228-240
community college level, 245-251
postbaccalaureate level, 240-245
Historically black colleges and universities (HBCUs), 238-239
Hours worked per week
by computer programmers, 190
by computer systems analysts and scientists, 190
Human resources policies, improving internal, 198-199
I
ICCP. See Institute for Certification of Computing Professionals
Immediately available workers, expanding the pool of, 201-216
Immigrants. See also Foreign workers in the IT workforce
illustrative contributions to the U.S. economy, 154
Immigration and Naturalization Service (INS), 159-160, 165, 169, 300
Incentives for employers to increase training, 17, 297-299
direct grants to employers for training, 298-299
and the federal government IT workforce, 114-116
levy/grant or mandatory training programs, 298-299
subsidized loans, 298
tax credits, 298
Incentives for IT workers, nonmonetary, 115-116
Incremental change, vs. paradigmatic, 259
Incumbent workers, 99
India, IT education policy in, 242
Industrial sector. See also High-technology sector; IT sector
making greater use of adjunct faculty drawn from, 294
vast predominance of the Category 1 IT workforce in, 68
Industry certification, 251-253
Industry-wide software systems, 127
Information technology. See IT
Information Technology Association of America (ITAA), 335-336, 339, 342-343
Infrastructure, for training, 258-260
INS. See Immigration and Naturalization Service
Institute for Certification of Computing Professionals (ICCP), 251-252
Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers Computer Society, 232, 311
Integration
of work and learning, 12, 268-270
of work organization, assessment, and software engineering, 302-303
Intellectual abilities, needed for IT work, 55-56
Interactions, between Category 1 and Category 2 IT work, 49-51
Internal Revenue Service, 114
International Webmasters' Association, 251
Internet, jobs advertised on, 93
Internships, 16
Interviews
structured, 207
unstructured, 204
Investment abroad by the IT industry, 181-183
employment in U.S. parent companies and their affiliates abroad, 182-183
foreign facilities, 181
strategic alliances, 181-182
IT careers
annual changes in median salaries for selected, 75
fluidity of, 221
joint action needed to promote awareness of and interest in, 311
targeting underrepresented groups for, 212-216
young people's views of education and, 226-228
IT education, 79-82. See also Computer science education; Formal IT education
policy in India, 242
IT firms. See U.S. IT firms
IT fluency, promoting in K-12 and in colleges to a greater degree, 15-16, 292
IT labor market, 109, 140-146. See also IT workforce
AARP audit study on, 146-147
applicants "testing," 99-100
data from the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 139-140
data on job loss, Category 1 IT workers, 142
data on job replacement, Category 1 IT workers, 143-146
data on the relative youthfulness of Category 1 IT workforce, 141-142
elasticity of demand within, 103n
empirical evidence on, 139-147
factors impeding the clearing of, 108
integrating work and learning, 12, 268-270
overall, in inferring a worker shortage, 99
role of formal education, 10-11
survey data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, 140-146
training IT workers, 254-267
IT sector, 23-132
as a policy driver, 38-40
attention captured by, 28-40
character of, 23-43
characterizing the workforce problem within, 92-132
competition in, 29
definitions, 25-26
flourishing of, 29-32
future of, 23-24
global nature of, 39, 152
hardware subsector within, 25, 84-87
influence on the IT workforce, 24-28
investment abroad by, 181-183
jobs in, 194-198
role in present assessment of IT workforce issues, 40-42
understanding the IT workforce, 44-91
unemployment in, 93
IT skills
access in the secondary classroom, 225-226
combining with knowledge of a specific business, 122-123
concerns of government contractors, 118
future projections, 122-123
standards from the Northwest Center for Emerging Technologies, 248-249
IT users, 45n
IT work, 90-91
Category 1 vs. Category 2 IT workers, 51-54
Category 1 work, 47-48
Category 2 work, 49
core knowledge and abilities needed for, 55-56
formal education, by type of, 54-55
fulfillment that comes from responsible positions serving the nation, 308
in Category 1 IT occupations by occupational category, 64
integrating with learning, 12, 268-270
interaction between Category 1 and Category 2 work, 49-51
locating abroad, 179-184
nature of, 4, 47-54
organizing for productivity, 291
role of experience and situated learning and knowledge in, 56-60
IT workers
attracting and using more efficiently, 188-201
average change in median annual salary for, by region, 73
defining, 44-47
defining shortage of, 109
displaced, 145-146
educational background of, 79-82
expanding the pool of immediately available, 201-216
federal government in competition with private sector for, 113-114
future trends in assessment of, 211-212
growth in total compensation for, 106
improving quality of life for, 288-289
improving working conditions for, 309
intellectual and knowledge requirements for, 54-60
numbers of H-1B visas granted to, 164n
reducing relative need for, 126-131
sample titles of, 46
slow response time by, 108
training, 254-267
IT workforce. See also Category 1 IT workforce; Category 2 IT workforce; Existing IT workforce
characteristics of, 60-90
future projections for, 119-131
geographical issues in, 111
influence of entire IT sector on, 24-28
regional supply issues in, 112
size and structure of the, 6-7, 60-61, 344
size of hardware subsector, 86-87
understanding, 44-91
IT workforce problem, 2, 4-6, 92-132
compensation, 102-107
for the federal government IT workforce, 113-119
inference of worker shortages, 97-108
IT labor market, 109
overall labor market, 99
projections for the future, 119-131
relieving, 135-272
reports of difficulty in hiring, 92-97
role of IT sector in current assessment of, 40-42
segmentation of demand for IT workers, 110-112
size of the applicant pool, 99-102
skills shortages vs. worker shortages, 102
time to reach equilibrium, 107-108
ITAA. See Information Technology Association of America
J
Java programmers, 94, 253, 262, 264
Jobs in the IT sector. See also Wages
advertised on the Internet, 93
effectiveness of assessment techniques for analyzing, 205-209
improving attractiveness of, 15, 194-196
increasing awareness of among potential workers, 196-198
sample titles, 46, 88
Joint Venture: Silicon Valley Network, 96, 266
K
Knowledge needed for IT work, 56-60. See also Attributes of IT workers; Being Fluent with Information Technology; Educational background
enduring vs. perishable, 56-57, 293
"hard" vs. "soft," 56-57, 293
intellectual abilities, 55-56
social abilities, 56
understanding of basic concepts supporting IT, 56
L
Labor condition application (LCA), 165, 170, 173
Labor market. See IT labor market
LCA. See Labor condition application
Learning. See Computer science education; Degrees; Formal IT education; Organizational learning; Situated learning; Training IT workers
Legal dimensions of age discrimination, 136-138
definition of age discrimination, 136
legal theories for showing age discrimination, 137-138
Supreme Court rulings on, 138-138
Legal dimensions of assessment, 209-211
Levy/grant training programs, 298-299
Lifelong learning, need for, 254-255
Loans for training programs, subsidized, 298
M
Male workers, Category 1 IT workforce predominance of, 66
Management
for greater productivity, 127-130
for software engineering, 130
micromanagement, 130
of organizational learning, 49n
Mandatory training programs, 298-299
Market disequilibrium models, of an occupational labor shortage, 98
Marketplace. See IT labor market
Massachusetts Software Council (MSC), 266-267
Meeting the Federal IT Workforce Challenge, 18
Minority groups. See Underrepresented groups
Moore's law, 25
MSC. See Massachusetts Software Council
Multiple employment applications, 100-101
N
NACE. See National Association of Colleges and Employers
NAEP. See National Assessment of Educational Progress
NAFTA. See Trade-NAFTA ("TN") visas
NASA. See National Aeronautics and Space Administration
NASSCOM. See National Association of Software and Service Companies
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), 115, 117-118
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 222-223
National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE), 70, 114
National Association of Software and Service Companies (NASSCOM), 179
National Center on Employee Ownership (NCEO), 74
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 291
National Employer Survey, 260
National Science Foundation (NSF), 3, 62, 82, 241, 303n, 326-327
NCEO. See National Center on Employee Ownership
"New economy," 35
Non-H-1B nonimmigrant visa categories, 162-163
"E" treaty traders and investors, 162
"F" foreign students, 162
"J" exchange visitors and spouses, 162-163
"L" intracompany transferees, 163
"TN" trade-NAFTA visas, 163
Non-U.S. citizens, in the Category 1 IT workforce, 67
Nonimmigrant foreign workers. See Temporary nonimmigrant workers in foreign worker programs
Northwest Center for Emerging Technologies (NWCET), 247-248
IT skills standards from, 85, 88-89, 208, 212, 224, 248, 343-344
NSF. See National Science Foundation
NWCET. See Northwest Center for Emerging Technologies
O
Object-oriented languages, 259
Occupational Employment Survey (OES), 64, 70, 72, 300, 332-333, 336-337, 340
Occupational groups. See also Science and technology occupations
and related skill standards, 88-89
rapidly growing in the Category 2 IT workforce, 85
OES. See Occupational Employment Survey
Office of Personnel Management (OPM), 113, 115-118, 311
Older workers
and possible age-related discrimination, 135-151
empirical evidence on the labor market experiences of older and younger IT workers, 139-147
legal dimensions of age discrimination, 136-138
older workers equally likely to find new jobs as younger, 143-146
older workers more likely than younger to lose their jobs, 142
O*NET, 208
OPM. See Office of Personnel Management
Organizational learning, management of, 49n
Outsourcing, 32, 129
Overtime for IT workers
exemption from restrictions on, 193n
increasing use of, 9, 189-194
P
Permanent labor certification (PLC). See Green-card process
Permanent residence program, 170-171
Permanent residents in foreign worker programs, 157-160
numbers, 157-158
obtaining a green card, 158-160
priority workers, 157-158
skilled workers, professionals, and other workers, 158
Personnel, reducing relative needs for, 126-131
Personnel supply firms (PSFs), model for third-party use of nonimmigrant foreign labor, 166-167
PITAC. See President's Information Technology Advisory Committee
Policy driver, the IT sector as, 38-40
Postbaccalaureate level, formal education at, 11, 240-245
Potential workers, increasing awareness of jobs among, 196-198
President's Information Technology Advisory Committee (PITAC), 286n
Priority workers, among permanent residents in foreign worker programs, 157-158
Private sector IT workforce, federal government in competition with, 113-114
Problem solving for IT workforce issues, 135-272
foreign workers in the IT workforce, 152-187
increasing the supply of qualified labor by training and education, 220-272
making more effective use of the existing IT workforce, 188-219
older IT workers and possible age-related discrimination, 135-151
Productivity of the IT workforce
COCOMO model for, 59
defining, 126n
illustrative tools for, 127
impact of experience on, 59
increasing, 126-131
likely impact of improvements in, 129, 131
management and organization, 127-130
organizing work for, 291
research needed into, 302
tools, 126-127
variations among software developers, 52
Professional development, release time for, 16
Professional societies and groups, using to support educational efforts, 16, 296
Professional specialty workers, 66n
age distribution of, 141
Project-based employment
forms taken by, 123-124
future projections for, 123-126
Proprietary information issues, 125
PSFs. See Personnel supply firms
Q
Quality of life, improving for IT workers, 15, 288-289
Quantitative outlook for the IT workforce, future projections, 120-122
Quotas, per-country, 160
R
Recruitment and retention of IT workers, 194-199
being more flexible in, 308-309
changing practices in, 287
for the federal government IT workforce, 116
improving internal human resources policies, 198-199
improving job attractiveness, 194-196
increasing awareness of jobs among potential workers, 196-198
Reduction-in-force (RIF) notices, impact of, 114-115
Regional supply issues, in the IT workforce, 112
Regional training consortia, supporting, 299-300
Regulation, of the biotechnology industry, 13
Relief, for the IT workforce problem, 135-272
Remote collaboration, 184
Remuneration, federal government increasing flexibility in, 18, 308-309
Research needed, 17, 302-303
in software engineering, 302
into assessment tools for IT jobs, 302
into better integration of work organization, assessment, and software engineering, 302-303
into productivity, 302
into situated learning, 302
into streamlining the green-card process, 303-307
into work organization, 302
Retention. See Recruitment and retention of IT workers
RIF notices. See Reduction-in-force notices
Risk management, 130
S
Salaries, 77-79
Salary increases
in mean annual salary for science and technology occupations, 71, 73
in mean income for computer programmers, annual, 76
in mean income for computer systems analysts and scientists, annual, 69n, 76
SC/CHiPS Professional & Managerial (P&M) Total Compensation Survey, 105n
Science and engineering graduates, percentage, by age group, employed in IT and non-IT occupations, 67
Science and technology occupations
changes in employment for selected, 65
Secondary education, 10, 221-228
access to IT in the classroom, 225-226
improving, 15, 102n
state of, 223-225
young people's views of education and IT careers, 226-228
Secondary mathematics education, improving, 291-292
Sectors. See High-technology sector; Industrial sector; IT sector
Security issues, in the federal government IT workforce, 117-118
Self-study programs, 16
SESTAT data system, 62, 64, 66, 84, 86, 327, 336
Shared training, approaches to, 266-267
Shortage of IT workers. See also IT workforce problem; Tightness in the IT labor market
defining, 109
Situated learning
research needed into, 302
role in IT work, 56-60
Skilled workers. See also IT skills
among permanent residents in foreign worker programs, 158
needed for the future, 122-123
Skills of existing faculty, upgrading, 294-295
Skills shortages. See also "Upskilling" programs
vs. worker shortages, in inferring a worker shortage, 102
Social abilities, needed for IT work, 56
Social change, broad-scale, 37
Social demand model, of an occupational labor shortage, 97-98
Software engineering, 25-26
elements of managing, 130
evaluating, 52
international aspect of, 152-153
research needed in, 302
Software reuse, 127
Software systems, industry and enterprise-wide, 127
Standish Group, 128
STAR program, 116
State-supported educational institutions, changing funding formulas for, 301
Strategic alliances, investment in by the IT industry, 181-182
Strategic Tactical Advocates for Results. See STAR program
Strategies for increasing the supply of qualified labor, 220-272
integrating work and learning, 268-270
role of formal education, 220-254
training IT workers, 254-267
Structured assessment methods, 10, 206-207
making more use of, 287-288
validated, 15
Structured interviews, 207
Students. See Educational institutions; Foreign students' ("F") visas
Supreme Court, rulings on age discrimination, 137-138
Survey data, on the IT labor market, from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, 140-146
T
Taulbee survey, 80-82, 244
Tax credits for training programs, 298
Technical writers, numbers rapidly growing, 85
Tek.Xam assessment, 211
Temporary nonimmigrant workers in foreign worker programs, 160-170. See also H-1B visas
numbers of H-1B visas and workers, 161-168
obtaining an H-1B visa, 165-170
Tenure-track faculty, complements to regular, 236
Third International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS), 222-223
Tightness in the IT labor market, 109
coping with, 5, 13-14, 17
federal government coping with, 116-117
impact of age-related discrimination on, 150
worldwide, 100
Titles of IT workers, sample, 46, 88
Tools for greater productivity, 126-127
Training IT workers, 11-12, 15, 254-267
and firm size, 262-264
approaches to shared training, 266-267
costs of, 119
disincentives for employer-provided formal training, 255-257, 297-298
extent of, 261-262
factors affecting, 257-258
historical experiences in, 264-265
in ASTD firms, 265
incentives for employers to increase, 297-299
making more resources available for, 18, 309
need for lifelong learning, 254-255
opportunities in the economy and in high technology, 260-261
promoting, 289-291
release time for, 16
support and infrastructure for, 258-260
supporting regional consortia for, 299-300
time needed for, 108
training realities, 261-264
Tuition reimbursement, 116
Turnover rates, 95
U
Underrepresented groups
and concerns of government contractors, 118-119
joint action needed to expand opportunities for, 15, 312-313
targeting for IT careers, 16, 212-216
Unemployment, in the IT sector, 93
Unintended bias, accounting for, 204-205
Universities. See Educational institutions
"Upskilling" programs, 221
U.S.-born workers
in the Category 1 IT workforce, 66-67
degrees held by, 67n
U.S. Census Bureau, 260, 335
U.S. economy, 2-3, 35-38, 152-155, 260-261, 297
U.S. IT firms, 30-31
availability of foreign IT workers to, 177-184
employment in affiliates abroad, 182-183
number employed in by IT industry sector, including foreign affiliates, 182-183
size of, and training, 262-264
U.S. workforce, impact of foreign workers on, 152-155
V
Vacancy, defining, 93-96
Visa categories. See also Green-card process
"E" treaty traders and investors, 162
"F" foreign students, 162, 241
"H-1B" visas, 161-177
"J" exchange visitors and spouses, 162-163
"L" intracompany transferees, 163, 185
"TN" trade-NAFTA visas, 163
W
Wages. See also Remuneration; Salaries
being more flexible in, 308-309
growth in mean for Category 2 IT workforce, 90
growth in total compensation for IT workers, 106
in beginning salaries for bachelor's degree recipients, annual, 72
in inferring a worker shortage, 102-107
in the Category 1 IT workforce, 68-79
Women. See Female workers; Underrepresented groups
Word-of-mouth hiring, 197-198
Work. See Category 1 IT work; Category 2 IT work; IT work; Jobs
Workers. See also Displaced workers; Female workers; Foreign workers; IT workers; Male workers; Older workers; Skilled workers; Younger workers
Worker shortages. See also IT workforce problem
inference of, 97-108
perspective on the H-1B visa program, 172-173, 175
vs. skills shortages, 102
Workforce. See Biotechnology workforce; IT workforce; U.S. workforce
Working conditions
flexible, 116
improving for IT workers, 309
Work organization, research needed into, 302
Y
Younger workers
equally likely to find new jobs as older, 143-146
relative predominance in the Category 1 IT workforce, 66, 141-142
Young people, views of education and IT careers, 226-228
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