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HE
INTERNET'
COIN
Committee on the Internet in the
Evolving Information Infrastructure
OF AN
Computer Science and Telecommunications Board
Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C.
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NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Gov-
erning Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from
the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engi-
neering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible
for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for
appropriate balance.
Support for this project was provided by the National Science Foundation under
contract No. ANI-9714374. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommenda-
tions expressed in this material are those of the authors and do not necessarily
reflect the views of the sponsor.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
The Internet's coming of age / Committee on the Internet in the Evolving
Information Infrastructure, Computer Science and Telecommunications
Board, Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications,
National Research Council.
p. cm.
ISBN 0-309-06992-0
1. Internet. I. National Research Council (U.S.~. Committee on the
Internet in the Evolving Information Infrastructure. II. Title.
TK5105.875.I57 15435 2000
004.67'8 dc21
00-012242
Additional copies of this report are available from:
National Academy Press
2101 Constitution Ave., NW
Box 285
Washington, DC 20055
800-624-6242
202-334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area)
http: / /www.nap.edu
Copyright 2001 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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National Acaclemy of Sciences
National Acaclemy of Engineering
Institute of Meclicine
National Research Council
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating soci-
ety of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedi-
cated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general
welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863,
the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on
scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National
Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter
of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding
engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its mem-
bers, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advis-
ing the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors
engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education
and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. William
A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of
Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in
the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The
Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences
by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon
its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education.
Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sci-
ences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with
the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal gov-
ernment. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the
Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the
National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in pro-
viding services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering
communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the
Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. William A. Wulf are chairman
and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
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COMMITTEE ON THE INTERNET
IN THE EVOLVING INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE
ERIC SCHMIDT, Novell ~c., Chair
TERRENCE McGARTY, The Telmarc Group, Vice-chair
ANTHONY S. ACAMPORA, University of California at San Diego
WALTER S. BAER, RAND Corporation
FRED BAKER, Cisco Systems
ANDREW BLAU, Flanerie Works
DEBORAH ESTRTN, University of California at Los Angeles
CHRISTIAN HUITEMA, Microsoft
EDWARD JUNG, INTELLECTUAL VENTURES
DAVID A. KETTLER, BelISouth
JOHN C. KLENSIN, AT&T
MILO MEDIN, Excite@,Home
CRAIG PARTRIDGE, BEN Technologies
DANIEL SCHUTZER, Citibank
Special Advisor
DAVID D. CLARK, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Staff
JON EISENBERG, Study Director
MARJORY S. BLUMENTHAL, Director
SUZANNE OSSA, Senior Project Assistant
DAVID PADGHAM, Project Assistant
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COMMITTEE ON THE INTERNET
IN THE EVOLVING INFORMATION INFRASTRUCTURE
ERIC SCHMIDT, Novell Inc., Chair
TERRENCE McGARTY, The Telmarc Group, Vice Chair
ANTHONY S. ACAMPORA, University of California at San Diego
WALTER S. BAER, RAND Corporation
FRED BAKER, Cisco Systems
ANDREW BLAU, Flanerie Works
DEBORAH ESTRIN, University of California at Los Angeles
CHRISTIAN HUITEMA, Microsoft
EDWARD rUNG, Intellectual Ventures
DAVID A. KETTLER, BellSouth
rOHN C. KLENSIN, AT&T
MILO MEDIN, Excite@Home
CRAIG PARTRIDGE, BBN Technologies
DANIEL SCHUTZER, Citibank
Special Advisor
DAVID D. CLARK, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Staff
rON EISENBERG, Study Director
MARrORY S. BLUMENTHAL, Director
SUZANNE OSSA, Senior Project Assistant
DAVID PADGHAM, Research Assistant
v
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COMPUTER SCIENCE AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS BOARD
DAVID D. CLARK, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Chair
DAVID BORTH, Motorola Labs
TAMES CHIDDIX, Time Warner Cable
rOHN M. CIOFFI, Stanford University
ELAINE COHEN, University of Utah
W. BRUCE CROFT, University of Massachusetts, Amherst
SUSAN L. GRAHAM, University of California at Berkeley
rUDITH HEMPEL, University of California at San Francisco
JEFFREY M. JAFFE, IBM Corporation
ANNA KARLIN, University of Washington
MICHAEL KATZ, University of California at Berkeley
BUTLER W. LAMPSON, Microsoft Corporation
EDWARD D. LAZOWSKA, University of Washington
DAVID LIDDLE, U.S. Venture Partners
TOM M. MITCHELL, WhizBang! Labs, Inc.
DONALD NORMAN, Unext.com
DAVID A. PATTERSON, University of California at Berkeley
HENRY (HANK) PERRITT, Chicago-Kent College of Law
CHARLES SIMONYI, Microsoft Corporation
BURTON SMITH, Tera Computer Company
TERRY SMITH, University of California at Santa Barbara
LEE SPROULL, New York University
MARrORY S. BLUMENTHAL, Director
HERBERT S. LIN, Senior Scientist
TERRY R. SHEEHAN, Senior Program Officer
ALAN S. INOUYE, Senior Program Officer
rON EISENBERG, Senior Program Officer
GAIL PRITCHARD, Program Officer
LYNETTE MILLETT, Program Officer
JANET BRISCOE, Administrative Officer
DAVID C. DRAKE, Project Assistant
DANIEL D. LLATA, Senior Project Assistant
MARGARET MARSH, Senior Project Assistant
DAVID PADGHAM, Research Assistant
MICKELLE RODGERS RODRIGUEZ, Senior Project Assistant
SUZANNE OSSA, Senior Project Assistant
BRANDYE WILLIAMS, Office Assistant
Vl
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COMMISSION ON PHYSICAL SCIENCES,
MATHEMATICS, AND APPLICATIONS
PETER M. BANKS, XR Ventures, LLC, Co-chair
WILLIAM H. PRESS, Los Alamos National Laboratory, Co-chair
WILLIAM F. BALLHAUS, rR., The Aerospace Corporation
SHIRLEY CHIANG, University of California at Davis
MARSHALL H. COHEN, California Institute of Technology
RONALD G. DOUGLAS, Texas A&M University
SAMUEL H. FULLER, Analog Devices, Inc.
MICHAEL F. GOODCHILD, University of California at Santa Barbara
MARTHA P. HAYNES, Cornell University
WESLEY T. HUNTRESS, rR., Carnegie Institution
CAROL M. rANTZEN, Westinghouse Savannah River Company
PAUL G. KAMINSKI, Technovation, Inc.
KENNETH H. KELLER, University of Minnesota
rOHN R. KREICK, Sanders, a Lockheed Martin Company (retired)
MARSHA I. LESTER, University of Pennsylvania
W. CARL LINEBERGER, University of Colorado
DUSA M. McDUFF, State University of New York at Stony Brook
rANET NORWOOD, Former Commissioner, Bureau of Labor Statistics
M. ELISABETH PATE-CORNELL, Stanford University
NICHOLAS P. SAMIOS, Brookhaven National Laboratory
ROBERT I. SPINRAD, Xerox PARC (retired)
TAMES F. HINCHMAN, Acting Executive Director
. .
v''
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the Tnternet looks like. This new report gives readers an inside look at today's thriving
commercial Internet, identifying short- and long-term technical challenges as well as approaches
to Internet-related public policy.
The committee wishes to thank the various members ofthe CSTB staff who have helped
to make this report happen. In particular, Ion Eisenberg, the stab officer responsible for this
project, has played a central role throughout the entire project, coordinating all of the various
elements of the report. The committee would also like to thank Suzanne Ossa for her assistance
in organizing committee meetings and preparing the report. David Padgham made significant
contributions editing and researching this report. Liz Fikre was instrumental in editing the final
manuscript.
David D. Clark
Chair, Computer Science and
Telecommunications Board
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Preface
In 1967, the President's Science Advisory Committee's Panel on Com-
puters in Higher Education opened its report by noting that "after grow-
ing wildly for years, the field of computing now appears to be approach-
ing its infancy.''] This comment preceded by about 2 years the initial
deployment of Internet nodes, but while computing developed and pen-
etrated society in many ways over the succeeding decades, the Internet
grew more slowly until its commercialization in 1995, which led to an
explosion of growth that continues today. Extending the 1967 advisory
committee's analogy, one might today view the Internet as having reached
its adolescence. How it will grow up and how its maturation can be
fostered is the subject of this report.
Motivated by two concerns what would help the Internet mature to
meet ever-rising expectations and how might that maturation be
achieved the National Science Foundation asked the Computer Science
and Telecommunications Board (CSTB) to undertake a study of the
Internet and the key challenges that will shape its maturation, focusing on
the core technologies of the Internet. In response to this request, CSTB
assembled the Committee on the Internet in the Evolving Information
Infrastructure. This committee, made up of experts in technology and
President's Science Advisory Committee. 1967. Computers in Higher Education. White
House, Washington, D.C., February, p. 1.
1 ~
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x
PREFACE
policy, received briefings and conducted deliberations over a period of
almost 2 years. Those 2 years were particularly turbulent. They wit-
nessed enormous growth and diversification of the industries and non-
profit entities associated with the Internet and turned it into a cause
celebre: the Internet seems to be everyone's business today.
No matter how rapid the changes, the committee process does not
lend itself to the reaching of consensus in "Internet time." Like most
CSTB committees, this one, too, needed time to learn, deliberate, and
converge and also to see which trends endured and which seemed tran-
sient. Many parts of the report required little updating in the course of
this work, as they speak to basic design or technical principles that have
remained durable. But some elements in the landscape changed over the
past year, and the committee strove to update its analysis accordingly. It
sought to focus on guiding principles rather than on the more rapidly
shifting details. The resulting integrated discussion and analysis is in-
tended to help inform technical design, development, deployment, opera-
tion, and management decisions relevant to the evolving network of net-
works. It is also intended to guide policy makers as they seek to reconcile
the Internet's unique features with the existing body of policies and prac-
tices that are touched by the Internet, such as telecommunications regula-
tion.
The Internet's Coming of Age is the latest report in an influential series
about the Internet issued by CSTB. The first report, Toward a National
Research Network (1988), validated the concept of a comprehensive net-
work to support communications among researchers across the country
(and around the world), and it leveraged federal funding to support
Internet research, development, and deployment in the late 1980s. The
second, Realizing the Information Future: The Internet and Beyond (1994),
addressed the Internet's transition from a network complex aimed at the
research, education, and library communities to a complex serving all
segments of the economy and society, noting potential impacts on those
pioneering communities and covering a range of issues, from pricing to
intellectual property protection, that would impinge on the commercial
Internet. It explained the makeup of the Internet, relating its essential
technology to the proliferation of uses and communications modes that
accelerated in the l990s. The third, The Unpredictable Certainty: Information
Infrastructure Through 2000 (1996), examined the different industries
whose investments would be key to the Internet's growth and the evolu-
tion of user interests in Internet capabilities the chemistry of supply and
demand that would shape what the Internet looks like. This new report
gives readers an inside look at today's thriving commercial Internet, iden-
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PREFACE
Xl
i
tifying short- and long-term technical challenges as well as approaches to
Internet-related public policy.
The committee wishes to thank the various members of the CSTB staff
who helped to make this report happen. In particular, Ton Eisenberg, the
staff officer responsible for this project, has played a central role through-
out the entire project, coordinating all of the various elements of the re-
port. The committee would also like to thank Suzanne Ossa for her assis-
tance in organizing committee meetings and preparing the report. David
Padgham contributed significantly to the editing and research done for
this report. Liz Fikre was instrumental in editing the final manuscript.
David D. Clark, Chair
Computer Science and
Telecommunications Board
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Openness and Innovation
Cnbcal Open Standards in the Internet- The Hourglass Architecture
The Inte~net as A Platform for Application Innovation
Evolution of Internet Standards Setting
End-to-End Transparency
Addressing Issues
Nonuniform Treatment of Bits
Market/Business influences on Openness
Keeping the Internet Open
4 COLLISIONS BETWEEN EXISTING INDUSTRIES AND EMERGING INTERNET
INDUSTRIES: TELEPHONY AS A CASE STUDY
Introduction
What Is IP Telephony?
New and Evolving Architectures for Telephony
IP Telephony Architectures
The Evolving Architecture of the PSTN
Architectural Contrasts Between IP Telephony and Today's PSTN
Scenarios for Future Evolution
Interoperation between IP Telephony and the PSTN
Addressing and Number Portability
Signaling and Control and Service Creation
Robustness Considerations
Implications of IP Telephony for Telephony Regulation
Looking Forward: The Internet and Other Industry Sectors
5 IMPLICATIONS FOR BROAD PUBLIC POLICY
Introduction
Privacy, Anonymity, and Identity
Privacy
Anonymity
Identity
Authentication on the Internet
Taxation of Internet-based Commerce
Universal Service
APPENDIX: BIOGRAPHIES OF COMMEl~l BE MEMBERS
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Acknowledgmen! of Reviewers
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for
their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with pro-
cedures approved by the NRC's Report Review Committee. The purpose
of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments
that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as
possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for
objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review
comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integ-
rity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individu-
als for their review of this report:
Geoff Baehr, Sun Microsystems, Inc.,
Edward Balkovich, Bell Atlantic,
Scott Bradner, Harvard University,
Hans-Werner Braun, University of California at San Diego,
Charles N. Brownstein, Corporation for National Research Initiatives,
Brian E. Carpenter, IBM,
William J. Dally, Stanford University,
Joseph Farrell, University of California at Berkeley,
Robert M. Frieden, Pennsylvania State University,
Reed E. Hundt, McKinsey & Company,
Geoffrey Huston, Telstra Internet,
Stephen T. Kent, BEN Corporation,
Hal Varian, University of California at Berkeley, and
Kevin Werbach, Release 1.0.
. . .
x'''
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xIv
ACKNOWLEDGMENT OF REVIEWERS
Although the reviewers listed above provided many constructive
comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclu-
sions or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report
before its release. The review of this report was overseen by William H.
Press, Los Alamos National Laboratory, appointed by the NRC's Com-
mission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications, who was
responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this
report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and
that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for
the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee
and the institution.
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ConIenis
OVERVIEW AND RECOMMENDATIONS
1 INTRODUCTION AND CONTEXT
What Is the Internet?, 29
Success by Design Abstract Features and Principles, 34
The Internet's "Hourglass" Architecture, 36
The Robustness Principle, 39
Scalable, Distributed, and Adaptive Design, 40
From Internet Technology to Internet Marketplace, 41
Internet Organizations, 43
Key Trends in Internet Development, 44
Growth in Backbone Capacity, 45
Growth and Diversification of the ISP Market, 46
Upgrading the Local Access Infrastructure, 46
Growing Role for Wireless Services, 49
Voice and Data Services, 50
Rise in the Use of Single-Purpose Devices, 50
Future Evolution and Success, 51
2 SCALING UP THE INTERNET AND MAKING IT
MORE RELIABLE AND ROBUST
Building a Better Internet, 53
Scaling, 54
Scaling of Capacity, 55
xv
1
29
53
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xv!
CONTENTS
Scaling of Protocols and Algorithms, 56
Scaling of the Internet's Naming Systems, 58
Scaling up the Address Space, 64
Managing Addresses, 65
Routing Table Scaling and Address Aggregation, 66
Running Out of Addresses?, 71
Network Address Translation, 76
IPv6: A Potential Solution to Addressing and Configuration, 77
Deploying an IPv6 Solution, 79
Reliability and Robustness, 81
Designing for Robustness and Reliability, 82
Vulnerability of the Internet to Attack, 84
More Adaptive Routing, 89
Putting It Together, 90
Application Reliability and Robustness, 92
Robustness and Auxiliary Servers, 93
Toward Greater Reliability and Robustness: Reporting
Outages and Failures, 94
Quality of Service, 98
3 KEEPING THE INTERNET THE INTERNET:
INTERCONNECTION, OPENNESS, AND TRANSPARENCY 107
Interconnection: Maintaining End-to-End Service Through
Multiple Providers, 107
Structure of the Internet Service Provider Industry, 109
Interconnection Mechanisms and Agreements, 112
Considerations Affecting Decisions to Enter into
Peering Agreements, 118
Evolution of Interconnection Models, 121
Monitoring Internet Interconnection, 123
Openness and Innovation, 124
Critical Open Standards in the Internet The Hourglass
Architecture, 126
The Internet As a Platform for Application Innovation, 131
Evolution of Internet Standards Setting, 132
End-to-End Transparency, 138
Addressing Issues, 139
Nonuniform Treatment of Bits, 142
Market and Business Influences on Openness, 145
Keeping the Internet Open, 149
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CONTENTS
4 COLLISIONS BETWEEN EXISTING INDUSTRIES AND
EMERGING INTERNET INDUSTRIES: TELEPHONY
AS A CASE STUDY
Introduction, 151
What Is IP Telephony?, 152
New and Evolving Architectures for Telephony, 154
IP Telephony Architectures, 155
The Evolving Architecture of the PSTN, 159
Architectural Contrasts Between IP Telephony and
Today's PSTN, 161
Scenarios for Future Evolution, 162
Interoperation Between IP Telephony and the PSTN, 165
Addressing and Number Portability, 167
Signaling and Control and Service Creation, 168
Robustness, 169
Implications of IP Telephony for Telephony Regulation, 170
Looking Forward: The Internet and Other Industry Sectors, 175
5 IMPLICATIONS FOR BROAD PUBLIC POLICY
Introduction, 177
Privacy, Anonymity, and Identity, 180
Privacy, 180
Anonymity, 190
Identity, 194
Authentication on the Internet, 199
Taxation of Internet-based Commerce, 205
Universal Service, 209
. .
XVII
151
177
APPENDIX: BIOGRAPHIES OF COMMITTEE MEMBERS 217
INDEX
225
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