Appendix B
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Science teachers often ask about instructional materials that will help them implement inquiry-based instructional strategies and provide students with opportunities to develop the abilities and understandings of scientific inquiry. This appendix is intended to help identify and select such instructional materials. It begins with a brief summary of the different uses of the term "inquiry" presented early in this document, so that this section can stand alone and be shared with those responsible for selecting instructional materials.
Inquiry is used several ways in the Standards.
1. Scientific Inquiry. According to the National Science Education Standards, "Scientific inquiry refers to the diverse ways in which scientists study the natural world and propose explanations based on the evidence derived from their work" (p. 23). The Standards call for students to develop the abilities and understandings that will enable them to engage in this kind of activity. A key question when selecting instructional materials is the extent to which they support teachers in helping students achieve these goals.
2. Inquiry-Based Teaching. The Standards state that "inquiry into authentic questions generated from student experiences is the central strategy for teaching science." However, the importance of inquiry "does not imply that all teachers should pursue a single approach to teaching science." Inquiry is a characteristic of both a desired form of teaching and particular kinds of classroom activities. It can be used to teach (1) subject matter of physical, life, earth and space sciences, (2) the nature of the scientific enterprise (i.e., about scientific inquiry), and (3) the abilities required to conduct scientific inquiry. Inquiry-based teaching is a means, not an end.
3. Inquiry-Based Learning. In the Standards, inquiry also refers to learning processes. It is an active learning process -- "something that students do, not something that is done to them" (p. 2). The Standards tie inquiry-based learning both to scientific inquiry and to studies of human learning.
Clearly there are connections among these uses of inquiry in the Standards. The task of selecting instructional materials requires consideration of all these ways of thinking about inquiry.
The selection of instructional materials can be helped by standards-based thinking. Instead of asking, "what standards will a particular set of materials meet?" it is better to ask, "if I want to accomplish a certain outcome, what materials do I need?"
ANALYZING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS
The process of analyzing and selecting quality instructional materials includes determining the degree to which they are consistent with the goals, principles, and criteria developed in the National Science Education Standards. Well-defined selection criteria help ensure a thoughtful and effective process. To be both usable and defensible, the selection criteria must be few in number and embody the critical tenets of accurate science content, effective teaching strategies, and appropriate assessment techniques.
The process described in the following pages can help teachers, curriculum designers, or other personnel complete a thorough and accurate evaluation of instructional materials. To help make this examination both thorough and usable, references to specific sections of the National Science Education Standards are provided, as are worksheets to keep track of the information needed to analyze and select the best instructional materials.
Selection of instructional materials parallels a guided inquiry in many respects. First, questions need to be identified that will guide the analysis and eventually the selection. Such questions include:
- Is "science as inquiry" evident as content in the materials?
- Is the presentation of inquiry as content accurate?
- Is inquiry-based teaching evident in the materials?
- Is there adequate time and opportunity for students to develop the abilities and understandings of scientific inquiry and an understanding of science subject matter concepts?
Second, an investigation of the materials needs to be designed and conducted. The investigation requires systematic observations, accurate and consistent records, and clarification of the questions that guide the process. Are the observations consistent between different sets of materials? Were variables controlled, such as design and layout versus accurate portrayal of inquiry? Were similar techniques used to review all materials? Are the same kinds of data collected for all materials?
Third, recorded observations need to be used to develop summaries of the respective materials. These summaries should be based on what was observed and should differentiate among the materials.
Fourth, rational arguments need to be developed for the selection of materials. The arguments should be based on observations and address alternatives and options.
Finally, the process and final recommendation should be fully documented. This will be helpful for final review by such decision-makers as administrators and school boards.
ANALYSIS PROCEDURES
The procedures outlined in this section include:
- Overview of instructional materials
- Analysis of science as inquiry
- Analysis of inquiry-based teaching
- Analysis of assessment process
- Evaluation of teacher's guide
- Analysis of materials use and management
In this appendix, criteria for analysis of instructional materials focus on their usefulness for classroom teachers and their degree of alignment with the Standards. A thorough analysis of instructional materials requires considerable time, collaboration, and attention to detail. Good working notes are helpful in this process. For that purpose, analysis worksheets are included at the end of this section.
OVERVIEW OF THE INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS (SEE WORKSHEET 1)
A quick overview of the materials precedes a more detailed examination. The first consideration is whether the materials emphasize the key ideas and abilities from the "Science as Inquiry" standard. To help make this determination, look at the table of contents, index, and glossary. Worksheet 1 contains terms related to science as inquiry taken from the Standards. These terms will give a preliminary indication of coverage of these fundamental topics.
Look through both student and teacher materials.
- Are student outcomes listed?
- Are some of these inquiry outcomes?
Look for student investigations or activities.
- Where are they located? Note that in some materials, student investigations are integrated within the reading material. In others, they are located in a separate section -- sometimes at the back of a chapter or book or in a separate laboratory manual.
- Do they come after teacher explanations or lectures, or after students have read in their books? Or are they used to engage students in exploring new ideas before explanations are suggested?
Read several relevant paragraphs of student text material.
- What is your judgment about the presentation of scientific inquiry?
- Are the concepts in the students' text consistent with the fundamental concepts and abilities in the Standards?
- Does the text include more, fewer, or different concepts?
- Do the photographs and illustrations provide further understanding of science as inquiry?
ANALYSIS OF INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR INQUIRY AS CONTENT (SEE WORKSHEET 2)
Look for evidence in discussions in the text and in the student investigations of whether and how the fundamental abilities and understanding are addressed. (See Chapter 2 and Appendix A in this book, refer to a print copy of the National Science Education Standards, or access the Standards through the World Wide Web at www.nap.edu/readingroom/books/nses.) Examine several lessons in the student and teacher materials. To what degree do the lessons provide students the opportunity to develop the abilities and understandings of scientific inquiry?
Read through the text narrative, looking for student investigations and examining any suggestions for activities outside of class time. Consider:
- Are opportunities provided for students to develop abilities of scientific inquiry such as posing their own questions, designing their own investigations, using appropriate tools and techniques to gather data, using evidence to communicate defensible explanations of cause and effect relationships, or using scientific criteria to analyze alternative explanations to determine a preferred explanation?
- What opportunities are provided for students to develop a fundamental understanding of scientific inquiry?
In addition to the language of the text, examine the teacher's guide for ways to discuss the role and limitations of scientific skills such as making observations, organizing and interpreting data, and constructing defensible explanation based on evidence.
- Is there a discussion of how science advances through legitimate skepticism?
- Is there a discussion of how scientists evaluate explanations of others by examining and comparing evidence, identifying reasoning that goes beyond the evidence, and suggesting alternative explanations for the same evidence?
- Are there opportunities for students to demonstrate these same understandings as a part of their investigations?
ANALYSIS OF PEDAGOGY (SEE WORKSHEET 3)
What students learn about inquiry and the abilities they develop depends on many things, including the accuracy and developmental appropriateness of content and its congruence with the full intent of the content standards. Opportunities to learn should be consistent with contemporary models of learning. The criteria in this section are based on characteristics of effective teaching proposed in Teaching Standards A, B, and E:
- Teaching Standard A -- Teachers of science plan an inquiry-based science program for their students.
- Teaching Standard B -- Teachers of science guide and facilitate learning.
- Teaching Standard E -- Teachers of science develop communities of science learners that reflect the intellectual rigor of scientific inquiry and the attitudes and social values conducive to science learning.
Using the following sequence of questions, examine several lessons in the student materials and the teacher's guide.
- Do the materials identify specific learning goals and outcomes for students that focus on one or more of the fundamental abilities and understandings of Science As Inquiry?
- Study the opening pages of a relevant chapter or section. Does the material on these pages engage and focus student thinking on interesting questions, problems, or relevant issues?
- Does the material provide a sequence of learning activities connected in such a way as to help students build abilities of inquiry and fundamental understandings about inquiry or a subject matter concept? * Do the activities incorporate all five essential features of classroom inquiry described in Chapter 2? Are suggestions provided to help the teacher keep students focused on the purpose of the lesson?
- Does the teacher's guide present common student difficulties in developing inquiry abilities and understandings? Does it suggest possible alternative conceptions or misconceptions students may have and how to address them? Are suggestions provided for teachers to find out what their student already know and can do? Are there learning activities designed to help students identify what they know and build new concepts and abilities?
ANALYSIS OF ASSESSMENT PROCESS (SEE WORKSHEET 4)
Assessment criteria in this section are grounded in the Assessment Standards A to E. Examine several lessons in the student and teacher materials for evidence to answer the following questions:
- Is there consistency between learning goals and assessment? For example, if instruction focuses on building and understanding fundamental concepts, do assessments focus on explanations and not on vocabulary?
- Do assessments stress application of abilities and concepts to new or different situations? For example, are the students asked to explain new situations with concepts they have learned? Are they asked to design investigations into questions they have not yet addressed?
- Are assessment tasks fair for all students? For example, does success on assessment tasks depend too heavily on the student's ability to read complex items or write explanations, as opposed to understanding the fundamental concepts or being able to think scientifically?
- Are suggestions for scoring criteria or rubrics provided for the teacher?
EVALUATING THE TEACHER'S GUIDE (SEE WORKSHEET 5)
Examine several lessons in the teacher's guide to help answer the following questions:
- Does the teacher's guide present appropriate and sufficient background in science?
- Are the suggested teaching strategies usable by most teachers?
- Are suggestions provided for pre- and post-investigation discussions focusing on subject matter concept development, inquiry abilities, and inquiry understandings?
- Does the teacher's guide recommend additional professional development?
- Does the teacher's guide indicate the types of support teachers will need for the instructional materials?
ANALYSIS OF MATERIALS USE AND MANAGEMENT (SEE WORKSHEET 6)
A high degree of alignment of the content, pedagogy, and assessment criteria described in the Standards does not necessarily guarantee that instructional materials will be easy to manage. The Standards address the importance of professional development, and some aspects of the program standards apply as well. It is useful to ask:
- How many different types of materials must be managed and orchestrated during a typical chapter, unit, or teaching sequence (e.g., student text, teacher's guide, transparencies, handouts, videos, and software)?
- Does the teacher's guide contain suggestions for effectively managing materials?
- Do the instructional materials call for equipment, supplies, and technology that teachers may not have?
- Do the instructional materials identify safety issues and provide adequate precautions?
- Is the cost for the materials and replacements reasonable? Are there special requirements?
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