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OCR for page 1
1
Introcluction en c!
Executive Summary
GENERAL FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
Findings
The Panel has the following general findings concerning plasma
physics and fluid physics:
· In each area reviewed by the Panel, the level of basic understand-
ing increased significantly during the past decade.
· Although most plasma and fluid research is motivated by applica-
tions such as defense, fusion, space, communications, and atmospheric
modeling, the associated fundamental physics is at the very forefront of
knowledge and is characterized by high intellectual challenge.
· All matter under physical conditions with energies exceeding 1
electron volt per atom above the ground state involves plasma-physics
phenomena. Plasma physics combines concepts from electromagne-
tism, fluid physics, statistical mechanics, and atomic physics into a
unified methodology for the study and practical use of the nonlinear
collective interactions of charged particles with one another and with
electric and magnetic fields.
· The most important applications of plasma physics are to fusion
and space research, which have stimulated many recent advances in
plasma science. Other applications include new types of particle
1
OCR for page 2
2 PLASMAS AND FLUIDS
accelerators and coherent radiation sources, isotope separation, and
astrophysics.
· The technology needed to study hot plasmas in the laboratory and
natural plasmas in space has been developed largely over the past 25
years. As a result, plasma physics has become a well-developed
scientific discipline.
· The 1970s saw the extensive development of coherent and turbu-
lent nonlinear plasma physics, which is proving to be fundamental.
Many nonlinear concepts and mathematical methods developed in
plasma physics, such as solitons and stochasticity, have found appli-
cations in other areas of physics.
· The above theoretical advances aided by rapid developments in
precision plasma diagnostics and data-acquisition techniques have led
to significant technical advances in the laboratory. These include, for
example, the demonstration of rf current drive in tokamaks, observa-
tion of plasma solitons and cavitons, and magnetic braiding and the
development of new coherent radiation sources such as the free-
electron laser, the gyrotron, and the x-ray laser.
· The increasing precision of measurements, numerical modeling,
and theory applied to space plasma problems amounts to a revolution
in technique relative to 10 years ago. As a result, the study of space
plasmas has become one of the primary motivations and experimental
arenas for basic plasma research.
.
· The concepts and techniques of fluid physics find widespread use
In plasma physics, atmospheric science, oceanography, solid-earth
geophysics, astrophysics, biology, and medicine; in problems in laser
physics, combustion, and pollution control; and in the engineering of
transportation and defense systems, among others.
· The understanding of turbulent fluid motion and the ability to
control it have increased dramatically during the past decade. The
transition from organized to chaotic fluid flow has become a principal
arena for testing recent conceptual advances in nonlinear mechanics.
· The effectiveness of fluid-physics And plasma-physics research is
being revolutionized by the use of large-scale numerical computations
to investigate and solve previously intractable theoretical problems, as
well as to analyze and correlate large arrays of data.
Recommendations
In addition to the specific recommendations summarized in the
following chapters, the Panel makes the following general recommen-
dations:
OCR for page 3
INTR OD UCTI ON AND EXEC UTI VE S UMMAR Y 3
· To advance our understanding of fusion and space plasmas, and to
maintain and extend U.S. excellence in plasma physics, we recom-
mend that the federal government proceed with the next generation of
major projects in fusion and space research that are identified later in
this report and in other reports referenced herein.
· To enhance progress in fluid-physics research, we recommend two
national research initiatives: one would develop and deploy the simul-
taneous, multipoint flow instrumentation described later in this report;
the other would expand programs for research access to major com-
putational and experimental fluid-physics facilities.
· In view of the significant advances in plasma physics and fluid
physics during the past decade, we recommend a renewed commitment
by the federal government to basic research in these subjects. An
adequate level of basic research, free from short-term, application-
oriented goals, should be established in order to provide the founda-
tions for future scientific advances and new technologies.
In addition, the Panel makes the following recommendation to the
academic community:
· In view of the increasing precision of the experimental and
theoretical techniques of plasma and fluid physics, and their many
applications, we strongly recommend that senior-level courses in
plasma physics and fluid physics become a required part of university
physics curricula.
INTRODUCTION
The Emergence of Plasma Physics
With the rise of electrical science in the nineteenth century came
intimations of what are recognized today to be plasma effects. In the
1830s, Michael Faraday created electrical discharges to study the
chemical transformations induced by electrical currents. These dis-
charges exhibited unusual structured glows that were manifestations of
a new state of matter. It was impossible to go further until the
discovery of the electron by J.J. Thomson in 1895 and the elucidation
of the atomic theory of matter by N. Bohr, E. Rutherford, and others
shortly thereafter. By the early twentieth century, the subjects of
electromagnetism, fluid mechanics, statistical mechanics, and atomic
physics had been clearly defined. These would eventually be assem-
bled into a unified methodology for the study of the nonlinear collective
interactions of electrically charged particles with one another and with
OCR for page 4
4 PLASMAS AND FLUIDS
electric and magnetic fields, i.e., plasma physics. The realization that
plasma is the fourth physical state of matter was a major achievement
reserved for twentieth-century physics.
Advances in understanding plasmas in the laboratory, in space, and
in astrophysics occurred in parallel throughout the twentieth century.
In the 1920s, I. Langmuir discovered collective plasma oscillations in
the laboratory, and G. Breit and M. Tuve first reflected radio waves
from the ionosphere the very edge of space. Between 1930 and 1950,
the foundations of plasma physics were created, largely as a by-prod-
uct of ionospheric, solar-terrestrial, and astrophysical research, moti-
vated by such diverse concerns as understanding how radio waves
propagate in the ionosphere, how solar activity leads to auroral
displays and magnetic storms on Earth, and the role of magnetic fields
in the behavior of stars, galaxies, and the interstellar medium. H.
Alfven, E. Appleton, S. Chandrasekhar, S. Chapman, T. Cowling, M.
Saha, L. Spitzer, and many others contributed to this research. During
this period, laboratory gas-discharge experiments multiplied in number
and efficacy. In 1946, L. Landau developed the first theory of the
interaction between waves and resonant particles in a plasma without
collisions. By the l950s, it was clear that the collision-free nature of hot
plasmas was an essential property that highlights the collective inter-
actions fundamental to plasmas.
Modern plasma physics began in the l950s. Two events symbolizing
the deeper intellectual currents of those years were the first successful
launch of an artificial Earth satellite by the Soviet Union and the
revelation, through declassification, that both the United States and the
Soviet Union had been trying to harness the energy source of the Sun-
thermonuclear fusion for peaceful purposes. Then, as now, the
obstacles to achieving controlled fusion lay not in our ignorance of
nuclear physics, but of plasma physics. In 1958, the terrestrial radiation
belts were discovered and in 1960, the solar wind, both by spacecraft.
These discoveries showed that our exploration and future understand-
ing of the Earth and Sun's space environment would also be couched
in terms of plasma physics.
Two powerful motivations stimulated the growth of plasma physics
after 1960. Fusion research seeks a source of energy accessible to
human use that will last for a time comparable with the present age of
the Earth. Space research seeks useful comprehension of nature's
processes on a global and, indeed, solar-system scale, in recognition of
Man's dependence on his environment, as well as his curiosity about
the cosmos.
OCR for page 5
INTRODUCTION AND EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 5
The international effort to achieve controlled thermonuclear fusion
has been the primary stimulus to the development of laboratory plasma
physics. As early as 1958, the theta-pinch configuration produced
fusion temperatures at high plasma densities. However, the energy
confinement time was orders of magnitude lower than that required for
net energy production. The simultaneous achievement of high temper-
atures, densities, and confinement times similar to the plasma condi-
tions at the centers of stars required significant improvements in
forming and understanding plasmas confined by magnetic fields or by
inertial techniques. It became possible to diagnose fusion plasmas with
increasing precision, and theoretical plasma physics was stimulated to
explain observations made possible by more detailed and complete
measurements. The technology needed to create fusion plasma condi-
tions in the laboratory high magnetic field, large-volume supercon-
ducting magnets, intense energetic neutral beams, powerful lasers,
vacuum and surface techniques, and high-power radio-frequency
sources spanning a wide range of frequencies was systematically
assembled. The scientific feasibility of controlled fusion will likely be
demonstrated in the coming decade, an event that we expect will
invigorate research in plasma physics, just as the emergence of the
tokamak as an attractive confinement approach in the late 1960s led to
strong growth of the fusion program in the 1970s.
As the science and related experimental techniques developed, other
applications of plasma physics came into view. One example, among
many, is the free-electron laser. The free-electron laser, which can
generate coherent radiation from microwaves to optical frequencies
and perhaps even into the x-ray range, will find applications in many
branches of physics, other sciences, industry, and medicine. Using
collective plasma effects, it may also be possible to create a new
generation of accelerators, such as the beat-wave accelerator, operat-
ing at the frontiers of high-energy particle physics.
A new and challenging application of plasma physics is to the
separation of stable and unstable isotopes, for nuclear fuels, for
medical research and diagnostics, for agricultural research, for tracking
the motion of environmental pollutants, and for other uses. Many
subtle problems of plasma physics, plasma chemistry, and plasma-
surface interactions arise in isotope-separation research.
It is significant that the same discipline of physics plasma physics-
defines the basic language now used both in fusion research and in
solar-system plasma physics. The experimental diagnosis and theoret-
ical interpretation of many space plasma processes now match in
precision the best of current laboratory practice. As a result, the study
OCR for page 6
6 PLASMAS AND FF UlDS
of space plasmas has become one of the primary motivations and
experimental arenas for basic plasma research. Moreover, the plasma
phenomena in the solar system have proven to be examples of general
astrophysical processes. Not only does plasma physics describe both
solar-system and astrophysical phenomena, but the solar system has
become a laboratory in which astrophysical processes of great gener-
ality can be studied in situ.
The study of plasmas beyond the solar system has developed more
slowly than space plasma physics for a fundamental reason: the
microscopic plasma processes that regulate the behavior of distant
astrophysical systems cannot be observed directly, as they can in
space and in the laboratory. Now, however, the modern theoretical
and computational techniques developed to understand fusion, labora-
tory, and space measurements have opened the door to modeling of the
plasmas in the still larger and more exotic environments of astrophys-
ics, ranging from stellar atmospheres to quasars.
Such numerical modeling, which is at the cutting edge of computer
physics, is applied to statistical mechanics, nonlinear dynamics, fluid
turbulence, and elementary-particle physics, as well as to plasma
physics. In plasma physics, it has made quantitative the study of
complex magnetohydrodynamic systems, and it has clarified the
nonlinear collective processes that regulate plasma transport in such
systems.
Developed scientific disciplines are characterized by deep philosoph-
ical motivations, a unified body of powerful theoretical and experimen-
tal techniques, and a wide range of applications. It is our conviction
that with the growing integration of laboratory, fusion, space, and
astrophysical plasma research, plasma physics is becoming a well-
developed scientific discipline. When a scientific discipline matures,
technological innovation follows. Plasma physics, the only major
branch of physics to come largely into being in the past generation, is
just beginning to have its impact.
Classification of Plasmas
The plasmas encountered in nature and studied in the laboratory can
be classified as tenuous or dense, classical or quantum. Given the wide
range of plasma types and phenomena examined in this report, it is
useful to display this diversity in a single plot of plasma temperature T
(in kelvins) versus density n (per cubic centimeter) as shown in Figure
1.1. Evidently, plasmas range from the extremely hot, relativistic,
classical, tenuous plasmas encountered in the magnetospheres of
OCR for page 7
INTRODUCTION AND EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 7
Pulsar
Magnetospheres
10
10
ye
-
5
10
0~
Dens ity n ( cm~3 )
1,,,, 1
2o
FIGURE 1.1 Classification of plasmas by temperature and density.
RELATIVIST I C PLASMA
Magnetic
Fusion
Solar
Co rona
Solar
Wind
IDEAL CLASSICAL PLASMA
Inertial
Fus ion
kBT~E ~Discharges ~i
~nX3 = I
NO NOTICEABLE IONIZATION
1~1 1 , , , 1 , ,
/EF = kBT
/ DEGENERATE
QUANTUM
PLASMA
lo,
,, Electron
,, Gas in
Metals
EF=e2/n l/3
Wh its
Dwa rfs
_ ~
1
103°
pulsars to the extremely dense, cold, degenerate quantum electron
plasmas in white dwarfs.
As a guide to Figure 1.1, we consider a plasma with average number
density n and mean kinetic energy (3/2)kBT per particle. (Here, kB is
Boltzmann's constant.) The average distance between neighboring
charged particles is rO ~ n- ~/3. Therefore, the average Coulomb
interaction energy between neighboring particles is (~> ~ e2/n-~/3,
where e is the electron charge. Assuming a warm plasma with kBT
exceeding the ionization energy Ei in Figure 1.1, then the plasma is
classified as an ideal classical plasma provided kBT >> e2/n-~/3, i.e.,
provided the thermal kinetic energy is large in comparison with the
average Coulomb interaction energy. If both sides of this inequality are
raised to the 3/2 power, this condition can also be expressed as nA3 >>
1, where the Debye length AD = (kBT/4nTne2~/2 is the characteristic
shielding distance of the Coulomb interaction potential in a plasma. It
is evident from Figure 1.1 that an extensive region of (n,T) parameter
space is located above the curves nA3 = 1 and kBT~ Ei, corresponding
to ideal classical plasmas. Although they have widely different densi-
ties and temperatures, such classical plasmas include pulsar
magnetospheres and other astrophysical systems, the solar corona, the
OCR for page 8
8 PLASMAS AND FLUIDS
solar wind, and planetary magnetospheres, as well as a wide range of
laboratory plasmas characteristic of magnetic and inertial confinement
~ .
fusion.
As the plasma density is increased, the average distance between
neighboring particles becomes very small, and quantum effects become
important when n-~/3 is comparable to the thermal de Broglie wave-
length ~/me(2kgTe/me)~/2 of an electron. The characteristic scale of
electron kinetic energy in such a quantum plasma is the Fermi energy
EF ~ ~2~31r2n)2/3/2me, where 2~h is Planck's constant and me is the
electron mass. Referring to Figure 1.1, quantum effects become
important when EF > kBT, i.e., when the Fermi energy exceeds the
classical thermal energy kBT. If the Fermi energy EF also exceeds the
average classical Coulomb interaction energy e2/n-~/3, the quantum
plasma is ideal and weak-interaction models can be used to describe
such degenerate quantum systems. An example is the degenerate
electron gas in white dwarfs. On the other hand, in the region kBT < EF
< e2/n-~/3, which includes the electron gas in metals in Figure 1.1, the
quantum plasma is nonideal.
Finally, the small triangular region in Figure 1.1 bounded by
nA3 = 1, kBT ~ Ei, and kBT = EF is referred to as strongly coupled
plasma. Such plasmas are classical (since kBT > EF), but the Coulomb
interactions are strong since e2/n-~/3 is typically larger than kBT in this
region. Unlike ideal classical plasmas (where e2/n-~/3 << kBI), the
correlations due to Coulomb interactions are strong, and such systems
are modeled by numerical simulation on high-speed computers.
Fluid Physics*
Fluid physics, which is among the oldest branches of the physical
sciences, continues to fascinate scientists and engineers with an
eclectic collection of elegant problems. Our need to understand the
world of flow around us, encompassing the nature of transport across
biological membranes to the appearance of solitary waves in planetary
atmospheres, remains a constant stimulation and adventure.
Fluid motion, which can exhibit the apparent randomness of turbu-
lent flow as well as much larger-scale coherent structures, provides one
*The term "fluid physics" is appropriate in the context of this report. However,
owing to the broad range of interests of its practitioners, it uses several names, each of
which is proper in its own context. Therefore, terms such as "fluid mechanics,"
"gasdynamics," and "biofluid mechanics" are often used to describe special branches.
OCR for page 9
INTRODUCTION AND EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 9
of the premier testing grounds for new developments in nonlinear
dynamics. Wavelike fluid-mechanic teleconnections transmit informa-
tion about the Earth's tropical oceans over vast distances to alter
patterns of global atmospheric circulation. Swimming creatures are
governed by the laws of efficient underwater travel, providing insights
into the evolutionary pathways stimulated by changing environments
or vacant biological niches.
In common with many other branches of physics, fluid physics also
finds a driving force in the existence of important problems in engi-
neering. The pacing element for advances in many applications such as
the efficiency of flight, the effectiveness of heat engines, and the pro-
ductivity of chemical processing systems is our understanding of the
fundamentals of fluid motion. There are striking examples in the
machines of engineering as they exist today, compared with even the
recent past, that measure the magnitude of the advances in our under-
standing of fluid physics. As it is beyond the scope of this report to
delineate all of these advances, only a few are mentioned as examples.
The modern transport plane, with swept wings and quiet engines,
reflects the progress in the last few decades of our understanding of
high-speed flows. These configurations have been derived by a com-
bination of originally empirical and, more recently, theoretical and
conceptual constructs made possible by advances in our understanding
of the physics of flow. The gas turbine engine of today, although
superficially similar to its historical counterpart, includes major im-
provements made possible by extensive efforts in fluid physics. The
increased fundamental knowledge of combustion and heat transfer,
which was obtained with so much difficulty through research, has led
to lower exhaust pollution and longer life of the critical engine
components. Today's chemical engineering plants have a throughput
and an efficiency increase manyfold over those of only a decade ago,
brought about by careful analysis of fluid mixing and heat transfer.
These examples illustrate that basic knowledge in fluid physics moves
quickly from research in flow physics to application because of the
intense competitiveness of today's technological society.
In summary, fluid physics remains intellectually stimulating owing to
the elegance, widespread natural occurrence, and importance of its
problems. In addition, new levels of understanding of complex phe-
nomena have further vitalized this field. Much of this understanding
has been created in the last decade by the development of powerful
new tools that enable us to investigate the nature of complex phenom-
ena that heretofore appeared to be intractable mysteries. Thus, the
study of turbulence, complex high-speed flows, biological flows, and
OCR for page 10
1O PLASMAS AND FLUIDS
geological phenomena has been paced by new developments in pow-
erful computational and instrumentation techniques. We look forward
to the next decade as a time of excitement and adventure. The impli-
cations of mastering many important practical problems so necessary
for the well-being of the nation and the world serve as further stimulus.
PRINCIPAL FINDINGS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
We summarize here selected major findings and recommendations
that pertain to the areas reviewed by the Panel on the Physics of
Plasmas and Fluids.
General Plasma Physics
· The fundamental studies carried out during the past two decades
solidified the relatively new science of plasma physics. The under-
standing of small-amplitude wave propagation and of fluctuation phe-
nomena achieved in the 1960s is a necessary prerequisite for many
plasma applications.
· The 1970s saw the extensive development of coherent and turbu-
lent nonlinear plasma physics, which is proving to be even more
fundamental. The development and widespread use of advanced com-
putational techniques provided an important link between theory and
experiment.
· Direct support for basic laboratory plasma-physics research has
practically vanished in the United States. The number of fundamental
investigations of plasma behavior in research centers is small, and only
a handful of universities receive support for basic research in plasma
physics. A striking example is the minimal support for basic research
in laboratory plasmas by the National Science Foundation.
· Because fundamental understanding of plasma properties pre-
cedes the discovery of new applications, and because basic plasma
research can be expected to lead to exciting new discoveries, increased
support for basic research in plasma physics is strongly recommended.
The physics community should be encouraged to submit high-quality
proposals for basic research in laboratory plasmas.
· A dedicated study of plasma physics can be expected to lead to
important new research techniques and technological opportunities.
For example, dense nonneutral plasmas composed mainly of high-
energy electrons may become available with new types of accelerators,
taking advantage of collective processes. In a related area, new types
of particle accelerators using collective effects will contribute to
OCR for page 11
INTRODUCTION AND EXECUTIVE SUMMAR Y 11
nuclear and high-energy physics, energy-related applications, and
defense. New coherent radiation sources based on plasma technology,
particularly x-ray lasers and generators of submillimeter microwaves,
will have applications in materials research, medicine, defense, and no
doubt in other areas not yet perceived.
· The impact of plasma physics on related sciences and on technol-
ogy has continued to grow since the birth of modern plasma physics in
the late 1950s and will continue to grow for the foreseeable future,
provided a strong research base for plasma physics is maintained by an
adequate level of support.
Fusion Plasma Confinement and Heating
We divide the major findings and recommendations into those that
pertain to magnetic confinement, in which strong externally applied
magnetic fields are used to confine a high-temperature fusion plasma,
and those that pertain to inertial confinement, in which a solid pellet is
imploded to ultra-high densities.
MAGNETIC CONFINEMENT
· In all the main approaches to the magnetic confinement of fusion
plasmas, the principal measures of performance plasma density,
temperature, and confinement time-improved by more than an order
of magnitude as a result of intensified fusion research in the 1970s. One
approach the tokamak has already come within a modest factor of
meeting the minimum plasma requirements for energy breakeven in
deuterium-tritium plasmas. These achievements have been made pos-
sible by rapid advances in plasma science.
· The techniques used for plasma control and heating, the technol-
ogy of high-power heating sources, and the precision of plasma
measurements all improved dramatically during the past decade. There
were equally rapid advances in plasma theory and numerical modeling,
which are now able to explain much of the observed dynamical
behavior of magnetically confined plasmas. The establishment of the
National Magnetic Fusion Energy Computer Center (NMFECC) made
many of these advances in theoretical modeling and data interpretation
possible.
· A particular strength of the U.S. fusion program is its broad base,
which includes research on several alternatives to the mainline con-
finement concepts, to ensure that the maximum potential of fusion is
ultimately realized.
OCR for page 25
INTRODUCTION AND EXECUTIVE 5UMMAR Y 25
cially noteworthy were advances in experimental diagnostics and
computer modeling.
· Parametric instabilities of the laser radiation in strongly inhomo-
geneous plasmas, causing Raman and Brillouin scattering and conver-
sion to plasma and ion waves, were predicted by theory, confirmed by
experiment, and shown to be important processes affecting laser-
plasma coupling.
FUTURE RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES
INERTIAL CONFINEMENT
Many scientific and technological issues will be addressed with the
hundred-kilojoule drivers that will be available in the mid-1980s, while
others await megajoule systems. Future research opportunities in
inertial fusion include the following:
· Detailed tests of the improved laser-plasma coupling with short-
wavelength light will be made. It is especially important that this
information be obtained under plasma coronal conditions modeling
those in a reactor.
· Experiments defining the hydrodynamic stability of accelerated
targets and imploding pellets will provide information essential to
high-gain pellet design, which will continue to have high leverage and
will, in large part, define future technological requirements.
· There are several approaches to making the deposition of
driver-beam energy on the pellet acceptably uniform. One promising
approach, converting the beam energy to x rays in a hohlraum,
which in turn drives the implosion, will be tested experimentally in
detail.
· Several innovative ways of making laser beams much more
uniform, such as the induced spatial incoherence technique and
precision beam control, will be tested in large systems. Highly sym-
metric beam illuminations would allow beam energy to be used directly
for pellet implosion.
· Driver technology will continue to advance toward a high-energy,
high-repetition-rate, efficient driver suitable for energy applications.
One promising system under development is the krypton-fluoride
excimer laser; megajoule-class glass-laser designs are also being eval-
uated. Heavy- and light-ion beam drivers offer high potential efficiency
and repetition rates.
· There will be opportunities to study the properties of hot matter at
densities 100-1000 times solid densities.
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26 PLASMAS AND FLUIDS
Space and Astrophysical Plasmas
SIGNIFICANT RECENT ACCOMPLISHMENTS
Selected significant accomplishments in space and astrophysical
plasma physics are summarized below:
· The first spacecraft studies of the magnetospheres of Mercury,
Venus, Jupiter, and Saturn occurred during the past decade. The
concepts used to understand the Earth's magnetosphere were success-
fully extended to these magnetospheres, and significant new physical
phenomena were discovered. The generality of the concept of a
magnetosphere in solar-system and astrophysical environments was
recognized.
· Rigorous models of magnetic-mirror confinement, radial diffusion,
and turbulent pitch-angle scattering of energetic ions and electrons
were created and successfully tested by observations in the
magnetospheres of Earth, Jupiter, and Saturn.
· Rigorous analytical theory and numerical simulation established
the correct magnetohydrodynamical description of reconnection the
conversion of configurational magnetic energy to plasma kinetic and
thermal energy. Theoretical understanding of the more fundamental
collisionless description was consolidated. Experimental evidence for
reconnection was provided by laboratory measurements and by obser-
vations in the Earth's magnetosphere.
· A coherent program of active and passive radar experiments,
chemical releases, rocket measurements, analytical theory, and numer-
ical simulations devoted to the equatorial ionosphere led to the most
complete analysis of the nonlinear development of the Rayleigh-Taylor
instability in plasma physics.
· Detailed observations of the solar surface have forced a re-
evaluation of our current theoretical understanding of hydrodynamic
and magnetohydrodynamic flows: in consequence, sophisticated ana-
lytical and numerical models that aim to describe the observed highly
intermittent magnetic fields on the solar surface have been initiated.
· The detection by the Einstein Observatory spacecraft of stellar
coronal x rays proved that solarlike magnetohydrodynamic and plasma
processes are central to the physics of the atmospheres of all stars that
have convecting outer layers.
· A clear understanding of electron heat transport in the solar wind
was achieved by systematic measurements of superthermal electrons.
Quantitative studies of the conduction of heat between the solar corona
OCR for page 27
INTRODUCTION AND EXECUTIVE SUMMAR Y 27
and chromosphere, which promise to make interpretation of
chromo~nheric and transition-region line emissions more secure. were
-A Or---
initiated.
· Synoptic measurements of the dependence of the Earth's bow-
shock structure on the properties of the upstream solar wind substan-
tially increased the basic understanding of collisionless shocks.
· Measurements of the energetic particles and plasma turbulence
associated with interplanetary shocks and planetary bow shocks began
to be used to test self-consistent shock acceleration theories. These
results are providing a solid basis for theories of the acceleration of
cosmic rays by supernova shocks.
· Measurements of the isotopic composition and elemental abun-
dances of cosmic rays defined the lifetime of cosmic rays in the galaxy
and suggested that they are accelerated directly out of the interstellar
medium after being produced by the stellar nuclear-burning cycle.
· Detection of an x-ray line, plausibly at the electron cyclotron
frequency, provided the first experimental indication that neutron stars
have superstrong magnetic fields, of order 10~2 gauss a fundamental
hypothesis of pulsar and galactic x-ray source theories.
· Energetic plasma jets were found to occur in a wide range of
astronomical objects, from compact stars to active galaxies and
quasars.
· Plasma theory, numerical simulation, and laboratory experiments
provided a basic explanation of the Alfven critical flow velocity
criterion for the rapid ionization of the neutrals in a plasma-neutral gas
mixture.
FUTURE RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES
During the next decade, the expected research opportunities and
accomplishments include the following:
· The first stage in the exploration of solar-system plasmas, includ-
ing planetary magnetospheres and the large-scale heliosphere, will be
nearly completed by the Voyager encounters with Uranus and
Neptune, by the Galileo mission to Jupiter, and by the International
Solar-Polar Missions to high heliographic latitudes. The most impor-
tant remaining exploratory objective will be in situ measurements of
the solar corona.
· The plasma environment of the Earth will be subjected to con-
trolled study, and, perhaps, to a measure of control, through the
OCR for page 28
28 PLASMAS AND FLUIDS
systematic use of active experiments and by synoptic observations
made by the International Solar-Terrestrial Physics Program.
· High-spatial-resolution observations in the optical region by the
Solar Optical Telescope; in the radio region by the VLA, VLBI, and
the planned VLBA; and in the UV and x-ray regions by other planned
space experiments, such as the Advanced Solar Observatory, will
provide essential information for defining quantitative models of solar-
surface convection, surface magnetic fields and dynamics, solar flares,
and coronal heating, thereby creating the basis for general understand-
ing of stellar activity.
· The growing ability to make a series of detailed high-resolution
observations in many wavelength ranges (such as in the x-ray range by
the Advanced X-Ray Astrophysics Facility) will render many astro-
physical objects increasingly subject to theoretical models that explic-
itly take plasma processes into account.
· Understanding of many space-plasma processes will be sufficiently
quantitative to make them reliable components of models of large-scale
space and astrophysical systems.
· The first generation of large-scale numerical models of space and
astrophysical systems will be completed. Such models will likely make
plasma physics central to the interpretation of many astronomical
observations and motivate new and different kinds of observations.
Fluid Physics
SIGNIFICANT RECENT ACCOMPLISHMENTS
During the past decade, significant research accomplishments in fluid
physics included the following:
· The revolutionary development of computational fluid dynamics,
which has made possible the solution of problems that previously
defied theoretical analysis and experimental simulation, such as con-
vection and circulation within the Sun and planetary atmospheres, and
the nonequilibrium flow surrounding the Space Shuttle on re-entry.
The time and expense required to design aircraft wings, internal
combustion engines, nuclear fusion and fission devices, and surface
and undersea naval vehicle components were reduced. Computational
fluid dynamics has increased the understanding of flows in the presence
of combustion, chemical reactions, and multiple phases.
· An improved basic understanding and ability to model and com-
pute turbulent flows. These improvements include basic insight into
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INTRODUCTION AND EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 29
how mechanical systems display chaotic behavior; a better apprecia-
tion of the role, organization, and interaction of fluid structures of all
sizes; new diagnostics and methods of interpreting data; and the use of
large-scale computing.
· Single and multiphoton excitation, as well as scattering tech-
niques, were developed to study the energy budgets of severe gas-
dynamic environments such as flames, permitting the first detailed
investigations of complicated chemically reacting flows.
· Large-scale turbulent and coherent fluid-dynamic structures were
identified in the Earth's oceans and atmosphere and the atmospheres of
Jupiter, Saturn, and Venus. Their successful simulation using eddy-
resolving computer models gives a new view of laboratory turbulence
and the general circulation, storms, and weather of the atmosphere and
deep ocean.
· Fluid-dynamic modeling led to basic new knowledge of our
cardiovascular, reproductive, and urinary systems and many other
internal organs of the human body. It has also illuminated the locomo-
tion of biological organisms, from a single ciliate cell to the humming-
bird and the tuna. Fluid-dynamic principles proved vital to the design
of artificial organs, cardiovascular implants, prostheses, and the devel-
opment of new clinical diagnostic methods.
· Important advances were made in understanding the collective
behavior of dilute particulate and aerosol suspensions. New mathemat-
ical methods were devised for treating large-amplitude droplet defor-
mation and the strong interaction between three or more particles,
which have potential application to denser systems. These advances
have led to new insight into the behavior of clouds, fluid separation
phenomena, geological magma chambers, climate dynamics, and fluids
with complex theologies, such as blood.
· The central unifying idea of modern geology is the fluid-convection
interpretation of the motion of the Earth's upper mantle. The implica-
tions for planetary evolution, earthquakes, volcanism, and mineral
and petrochemical resource exploration were made clear in the last
decade.
· Dimensional analysis and recent theoretical understanding of jet
noise, acoustic damping, and turbulent flows led to a thousandfold
reduction in the energy of acoustic emissions from aircraft, resulting in
major reductions in perceived noise levels.
· An accelerated pace of accomplishment in understanding high-
speed flows has been made possible by improved analytical tools,
numerical simulation, and new experimental techniques. These tech-
nical advances inspired significant improvements in the efficiency of
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30 PLASMAS AND FLUIDS
commercial transport, in the effectiveness of high-performance air-
craft, and in manned re-entry from space.
· Simple wavelike connections were discovered in terrestrial cli-
mate studies. Circulation changes, like E1 Nino of the tropical Pacific,
are communicated across the globe and have large effects on rainfall
and winds.
· Noninvasive instrumentation techniques, such as those that detect
blood-flow-initiated acoustic emissions from the human body, or
neutrally buoyant probes that track, via satellite, the transient and
mean circulation of the oceans, significantly advance the understanding
of many fluid-flow phenomena.
· New constitutive models based on molecular physical structure
led to a better understanding of the striking flow properties of non-
Newtonian fluids, such as polymer solutions and drag-reducing agents.
· The synergistic interaction of chemical, fluid, and optical physics
has resulted in the new continuous high-power laser. This success led
to the identification of fluid phenomena important to the performance
of electric discharge and other gas-media lasers.
· The development of numerical simulation techniques has permit-
ted the study of molecular motion in transition-regime gas flows, which
occur between the limits of collision-dominated continuum flow and
collisionless, free-molecular motion.
FUTURE RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES
During the next decade, the expected research opportunities and
accomplishments in fluid physics include the following:
· Rapid advancement in the basic understanding of the characteris-
tics and origins of turbulence, including investigations of the connec-
tion between the routes to chaos found for systems with a finite number
of degrees of freedom and the continuous instability that is fluid-
dynamic turbulence.
· Improvements in the ability to control turbulent flows will lead to
novel drag and noise-reduction techniques; increased combustion
efficiency; and control of separation, spreading, and mixing. Major
advances in technology will result from the ability to predict flow with
turbulent zones.
· Continued rapid development of advanced computational tech-
niques in fluid dynamics, together with the next generation of comput-
ers, will provide the opportunity to calculate and obtain a new level of
physical understanding of complex three-dimensional compressible
~,
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INTRODUCTION AND EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 31
viscous flows. It will then be possible to optimize more effectively the
design of high-performance aircraft, improve the forecasting of severe
storm formation, attempt to predict global seasonal and annual climate
changes, and realistically simulate and model planetary and astrophys-
ical fluid-dynamical behavior.
· Development of powerful laser-based optical techniques for the
rapid, multipoint measurement of flow-field properties, in conjunction
with numerical techniques, will provide new types of information and
increase the usefulness of large experimental facilities.
· In many technologically important fluid machines the flow is either
separated or unsteady or both. With the help of modern instrumenta-
tion and computerized data analysis, we are beginning to understand
the physics of such flows and how, often in combination, they can be
used to improve technological devices ranging from heart valves to
aircraft. These possibilities will present a major research challenge in
the coming decade.
· The subjects of combustion and reacting flows are likely to yield
new applications in the near future. Control of soot and other pollut-
ants will result from the understanding of their production mecha-
nisms. Basic studies of the interaction between chemical kinetics and
fluid instabilities will result in an understanding of deflagration and the
transition to detonation. Applications range from improved fuel econ-
omy to fire safety.
· We expect to see major advances in the understanding of
multiphase flow systems, including the macroscopic and microscopic
interface phenomena of interest in both industrial and geological
processes, for example, the stability of the liquid-liquid interface
leading to fingering in oil recovery, convective processes in the ocean,
and the formation of layered structures in magma chambers.
· There will be increased interest in denser particulate systems,
from the multiparticle interaction of finite clouds of particles to, more
generally, the flow through porous media and filters based on the
hydrodynamic interaction with their microstructure.
· Interdisciplinary study of basic cellular level biofluid dynamic
processes in the presence of molecular forces will expedite explana-
tions of such diverse phenomena as electrokinetic behavior in pores
and membranes, the microstructure of osmosis, cell division, cellular
transport function, gel hydration, and fluid motion in the intracellular
tissue matrix. This will lead to a better understanding of basic cellular
physiological function.
· Increased computational and data-handling capability will permit
assimilation and understanding of the massive data sets required to
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32 PLASMAS AND FF UlDS
describe complex natural flow phenomena. For example, global-scale
investigation of the oceans and climate dynamics is now possible using
satellites and shipborne instruments. Using Lagrangian mathematical
techniques and instruments that move with the fluid, we anticipate new
views of turbulent dispersion; of the interaction between waves,
turbulence, and mean flow in boundary layers; and in ocean-
atmosphere circulations.
· The development of Monte Carlo computational techniques,
which account for molecular motion in gas flows, will be extended to
higher-density flows, permitting meaningful modeling of highly
nonequilibrium, chemically reacting flow systems.
FUNDING AND MANPOWER RESOURCES
The present funding levels for the areas of research described in
Chapters 2-5 are summarized in Table 1.1, including a breakdown by
government agency.
The funding level in Table 1.1 corresponds to a total of approxi-
mately 8600 professional researchers, assuming an average expendi-
ture of approximately $150,000 per researcher. The incremental fund-
ing and manpower required to carry out the recommended research
programs over the next 5 years are delineated in subsequent chapters.
Specific areas in which there is a critical manpower shortage are also
identified (e.g., coherent radiation generation, atomic physics, basic
experimental plasma physics, computational plasma physics and fluid
dynamics, and plasma astrophysics).
INSTITUTIONAL INVOLVEMENT
The subjects of plasma-physics and fluid-physics research cover an
extremely wide range of interests and applications, from basic astro-
physics to such applications as fusion energy and long-range weather
prediction. Correspondingly, the institutional structure within which
the studies are carried out spans the entire range of research institu-
tions from academe to industry. In what follows, we give a brief
description of the institutional makeup of the subfields covered in this
report.
General Plasma Physics
The funding for general plasma physics comes almost exclusively
from government agencies, with major contributions from defense
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INTRODUCTION AND EXECUTIVE S UMMAR Y 33
TABLE 1.1 Fiscal Year 1984 Funding Summary (in $ Millions)
DOE NSF DOD NASA NOAA Total
General plasma physics2.5 3.467.6 73.5a
Fusion plasma confinement and
heating
(a) Magnetic471 - - 47 lb
(b) Inertial170 - l70C
Space and astrophysical2 30 5 100 2 1394
plasmas
Fluid physics25 80e 170 110 42 427f
a DOD funding total includes: $4 million, ONR; $36 million, DARPA; $6 million,
AFOSR; $1.6 million, ASD (Wright-Patterson); and $20 million funding of the Naval
Research Laboratory Plasma Physics Division. The $36 million DARPA total includes
$10.5 million for operation of the ATA facility at LLNL. The $2.5 million DOE total is
for the Division of Advanced Energy Projects.
b Includes $88 million for fusion development and technology, $98 million for
operation and modification of the TFTR tokamak facility, and $55 million for construc-
tion (and supporting R&D) of the MFTF-B tandem mirror. The FY 1985 funding for
magnetic fusion Is $437 million.
c Includes $85.1 million for glass-laser, $46.9 million for gas-laser, $23 million for
pulse-power research programs, and $1.8 million for university research; it also includes
$12.9 million for construction of the PBFA-II light-ion facility. The FY 1985 funding for
inertial fusion is $169 million.
~ This total does not include launch vehicles and tracking of space vehicles; it is an
estimate of the funding for satellite plasma instrumentation and associated data analysis,
theory, and numerical simulation.
e This total includes $5 million for basic fluids research related to engineering support.
The remaining is for atmospheric sciences and oceanography.
f These are estimates of FY 1983 funding. Includes $230 million for national facility
operation and research field measurements; it does not include the substantial funding
used for the development testing of flight articles.
related agencies. The National Science Foundation provides only a
small fraction of the support for this research area.
Most of the applied research in general plasma physics is performed
at government laboratories, such as the Naval Research Laboratory, at
national laboratories, or at industrial laboratories. A small portion of
the research (approximately 15 percent) is performed at universities.
The university effort, however, contains a major part of the innovative
and basic components of the research.
Plasma Confinement and Heating
Since plasma fusion research is a long-range, energy-related topic,
its support (except for relatively small industrial components) derives
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34 PLASMAS AND FLUIDS
entirely from the Department of Energy (DOE). Correspondingly, the
major part of magnetic confinement research is carried out at national
laboratories (Livermore, Los Alamos, and Oak Ridge), at the Plasma
Physics Laboratory at Princeton University, and at the GA Technol-
ogies industrial laboratory. Although representing a smaller fraction of
the effort (approximately 10 percent), the universities represent a very
important component, providing not only innovative ideas and major
technical advances but also manpower training. Prominent among the
universities involved in magnetic-confinement research are Columbia
University, the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, New York
University, the University of California at Los Angeles, the University
of California at Berkeley, the University of Maryland, the University
of Texas at Austin, and the University of Wisconsin. The Magnetic
Fusion Advisory Committee Report on the Long-Term Role of Univer-
sities in the Fusion Program, Department of Energy (August 1983)
provides a detailed delineation of the university involvement (approx-
imately 26 institutions) in magnetic fusion research.
Similarly, the major part of inertial confinement research is carried
out at national laboratories (Livermore, Los Alamos, and Sandia), at
the Naval Research Laboratory, and at the KMS Fusion industrial
laboratory. There is also a major research effort in inertial confinement
fusion at the University of Rochester, with smaller but prominent
research activities at Cornell University, the University of Arizona, the
University of California at Davis, the University of California at Los
Angeles, and the University of Maryland.
The present pre-eminence of U.S. research in magnetic-confinement
fusion and inertial-confinement fusion is evidence favoring the present
mix of institutions involved. However, as fusion comes closer to its
goal of energy applications, the involvement of industry, currently
largely limited (except for GA Technologies, TRW Systems, and KMS
Fusion) to a technological support role, would be expected to increase.
A strong industrial participation in fusion research and development is
essential to eventual commercialization of fusion and spinoff applica-
tions.
Space and Astrophysical Plasmas
Support for space and astrophysical plasma research comes almost
exclusively from three government agencies, The National Science
Foundation (NSF), the National Aeronautics and Space Administra-
tion (NASA), and the Department of Defense (DOD), with some DOE
and small industrial components. The research itself is performed at
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INTRODUCTION AND EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 35
various government and national laboratories, at a few industrial
laboratories, and at many universities. A large fraction of the scientists
engaged in this research are university based, yet much of the research
is performed using the facilities of national and government laborato-
ries, a circumstance that can be understood in terms of the obvious,
necessary involvement of NASA. Although this division of effort has
thus far been successful, especially when viewed in the light of the
many recent accomplishments in space and astrophysical plasma
research, the decreasing frequency of flight opportunities presents
serious problems for university research, a situation that now requires
urgent attention. A more consistent policy of support for university
participation in space science is needed.
Fluid Physics
Fluid physics, consistent with the unusual breadth of its applications
(aeronautics, weather, and oceanography, for example), derives its
support from a variety of agencies, notably NSF, NASA, the Air Force
Office of Scientific Research, the Office of Naval Research, the
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and
DOE. Major funding is received by institutions such as the National
Center for Atmospheric Research (NCAR) in Boulder, Colorado, and
the NOAA atmospheric-science activity at Princeton University
(weather prediction), which in turn supports field studies and other
related activities. Universities are involved, at lower support levels, in
a wide range of activities ranging from fluid-related biological research
to aerodynamics to advanced gas-laser research. Fluid-physics re-
search is at the forefront of many current problems in applied physics.
Thus its institutional composition is very broad.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
fluid physics
