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OCR for page R1
V· ~
gamin
~ ~ '
in erance
of Animals
Subcommittee on Vitamin Tolerance
Committee on Animal Nutrition
Boarc! on Agriculture
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C. 1987
OCR for page R2
National Academy Press
2101 Constitution Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National
Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the
National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsi-
ble for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a
Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National
Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was established by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate
the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and
of advising the federal government. The Council operates in accordance with general policies determined by
the Academy under the authority of its congressional charter of 1863, which establishes the Academy as a
private, nonprofit, self-governing membership corporation. The Council has become the principal operating
agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in the conduct of
their services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. It is adminis-
tered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. The National Academy of Engineering and
the Institute of Medicine were established in 1964 and 1970, respectively, under the charter of the National
Academy of Sciences.
This study was supported by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, under
Agreement No. 59-32U4-5-6, and by the Center for Veterinary Medicine, Food and Drug Administration of
the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, under Cooperative Agreement No. FD-U-000006-06-1.
Additional support was provided by the American Feed Industry Association, Inc. Any opinions, findings,
conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authoring subcommittee and
do not necessarily reflect the views of the sponsors.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
National Research Council (U.S.). Subcommittee on
Vitamin Tolerance.
Vitamin tolerance of animals.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Vitamin tolerance in animals. I. Title.
SF98.V5N37 1986 636.08'52 86-28466
ISBN 0-309-03728-X
Copyright C) 1987 by the National Academy of Sciences
No part of this book may be reproduced by any mechanical, photographic
tic.
or electronic process, or in the
form of a phonographic recording, nor may it be stored in a retrieval system, transmitted, or otherwise copied
for public or private use, without written permission from the publisher, except for the purposes of official use
by the United States Government.
Printed in the United States of America
First Printing, January 1987
Second Printing January 1989
Third Printing,~ovember 1990
OCR for page R3
Preface
Optimal animal health and productivity are achieved
by providing an animal with the correct amount and
form of each essential nutrient. Good nutritional prac-
tice requires supplementing practical diets with vitamin
levels that exceed the bare minimum needed to prevent
deficiency diseases. Yet, vitamins added to supplement
feeds, which may have lost vitamins during processing
and storage, or to protect the animal from stress or stim-
ulate its immune system may necessitate the use of
much higher levels. The goal in animal feeding is to
supplement diets with vitamin levels that are adequate
for nutritional needs and accommodate the practical
conditions of feed manufacture and storage.
To address these concerns, the Board on Agricul-
ture's Committee on Animal Nutrition appointed the
Subcommittee on Vitamin Tolerance in 1983. The sub-
committee's report is the most comprehensive sum-
mary of current data about the vitamin tolerances of
animals. It will be helpful to livestock producers, live-
stock extension specialists, animal nutritionists, animal
nutrition students, and others interested in the subject.
The presumed upper safe levels of vitamins in this
book are meant to be used as guidelines to ensure that
vitamin supplementation does not adversely affect ani-
mal health. The subcommittee's objectives were to fo-
cus on: (1) vitamin tolerance of domestic and laboratory
animals under different nutritional and physiological
states, (2) biological measures that can be used as crite-
ria to establish tolerance, and (3) areas of incomplete
knowledge.
The first two objectives were, unfortunately, impos-
sible to fulfill completely. For most of the vitamins, in-
formation in the scientific literature on vitamin
toxicities was incomplete with respect to the range of
species studied and the quantitative aspects, such as
dose-response definitions. In some cases, the literature
indicated rather clearly the ranges of intake that would
produce certain adverse responses in certain species; in
others, it indicated little evidence of toxicity.
The third objective is significant. The subcommit-
tee's indicated values for the presumed safe levels are
limited in scope by gaps in current information. Areas
lacking adequate information are identified. It is the
subcommittee's hope that this report points to the limits
of current knowledge and important areas of research
that can contribute to improvements in animal nutrition.
The following individuals were responsible for re-
spective sections of the report: Robert Blair, riboflavin,
vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), biotin, vitamin Bit, and choline;
Gerald F. Combs, fr., vitamin E and niacin; John W.
Hilton, ascorbic acid and thiamin; Ronald L. Horst, vita-
min D; George E. Mitchell, Tr., vitamin A; and John W.
Suttie, vitamin K, pantothenic acid, and folic acid.
The report was reviewed by the Committee on Ani-
mal Nutrition, the Board on Agriculture, and outside
reviewers. The subcommittee is grateful for the efforts
of these individuals. We also thank Annette Bates, Es-
ther Collins, Karen Davis, Andra Hinds, Frances New-
some, and Pamela Senter, at our respective institutions,
for their administrative assistance. The subcommittee
especially acknowledges the contributions of Selma
Baron, who served as staff officer during the early prep-
aration of this report, and assistant editor Grace Jones
Robbins, who helped us complete our task.
GERALD F. COMBSS JR
Chairman
Subcommittee on
Vitamin Tolerance
· · -
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J
SUBCOMMITTEE ON VITAMIN
TOLERANCE
GERALD F. COMBS, JR., Chairman, Cornell University
ROBERT BLAIR, University of British Columbia
JOHN W. HILTON, University of Guelph
RONALD L. HORST, National Animal Disease Center,
U.S. Department of Agriculture
GEORGE E. MITCHELL, JR., University of Kentucky
JOHN W. SUTTIE, University of Wisconsin, Madison
.~.
COMMITTEE ON ANIMAL NUTRITION
JAMES G. MORRIS, Chairman, University of
California-Davis
FRANK AHERNE, University of Alberta
RICHARD E. AUSTIC, Cornell University
JIMMY H. CLARK, University of Illinois
DONALD E. JOHNSON, Colorado State University
ROY J. MARTIN, JR., University of Georgia
FREDRIC N. OWENS, Oklahoma State University
GARY L. RUMSEY, Tunison Laboratory of Fish
Nutrition, U.S. Department of the Interior
DALE R. WALDO, Animal Science Institute, U.S.
Department of Agriculture
Staff
CARLA CARLSON, Reports Officer and Senior Editor
GRACE NONES ROBBINS, Assistant Editor
1V
OCR for page R5
BOARD ON AGRICULTURE
WILLIAM L. BROWN, Chairman, Pioneer Hi-Bred
International, Inc.
JOHN A. PING, National Research Council Senior
Fellow
PERRY L. ADKISSON, Texas A&M University
C. EUGENE ALLEN, University of Minnesota
JOSEPH P. FONTENOT, Virginia Polytechnic Institute
and State University
ROBERT M. GOODMAN, Calgene, Inc.
RALPH W. F. HARDY, Cornell University and
BioTechnica International, Inc.
ROGER L. MITCHELL, University of Missouri
CHARLES C. MUSCOPLAT, Molecular Genetics, Inc.
ELDOR A. PAUL, Michigan State University
VERNON W. RUTTAN, University of Minnesota
THOMAS D. TRAUTMAN, General Mills, Inc.
JAMES G. TEER, Welder Wildlife Foundation
JAN VAN SCHILFGAARDE, Agricultural Research
Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture
VIRGINIA WALBOT, Stanford University
CONRAD I. WEISER, Oregon State University
CHARLES M. BENBROOK, Executive Director
v
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Contents
INTRODUCTION
VITAMIN A ....
VITAMIN D ....
VITAMIN E .......
VITAMIN K .....
ASCORBIC ACID
THIAMIN
NIACIN .....
RIBOFLAVIN (VITAMIN B2)
VITAMIN B6 (PYRIDOXINE)
Formic ACID
PANTOTHENIC ACID .
BIOTIN
VITAMIN BI2
CHOLINE
RESEARCH NEEDS
. . . .
SUMMARY .........
APPENDIX TABLE . .
INDEX
.11
.23
.31
.36
.53
· . . .
.64
.67
.70
.77
.85
.88
· e
V11
.93
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Figures and Tables
FIGURES
1. Major compounds of the vitamin A group, 4
2. Chemical structures of vitamin D3 and vitamin D2, 12
3. Factors regulating 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D and 24,25-dihydroxyvitamin D bio-
synthesis, 13
4. Scheme for the pathogenesis of vitamin toxicosis, 14
5. Relationship between plasma and milk levels of vitamin D in the cow, 16
6. Relationship between plasma and milk levels of 25-OH-D in the cow, 16
7. Chemical structures of naturally occurring vitamin E-active compounds and ana-
logues, 24
8. Chemical structures of three major forms of vitamin K, 32
9. The reduced and oxidized forms of ascorbic acid, 37
10. Chemical structure of thiamin hydrochloride, 44
11. Chemical structures of major niacin-active compounds, 48
12. Chemical structures of riboflavin and its coenzyme forms, 54
13. General chemical structure of vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), 59
14. Chemical structures of folic acid and 5-methyl-tetrahydrofolate, 65
15. Chemical structures of pantothenic acid and coenzyme A, 68
16. Chemical structure of biotin, 71
17. Chemical structure of the cyano form of vitamin By (cyanocobalamin), 76
18. Chemical structure of choline, 78
· · ~
vail
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Figures and Tables ix
TABLES
1. Relative Vitamin A Activity of Carotenoids, 5
2. Research Findings of High Levels of Vitamin A in Animals, 6
3. Required and Presumed Upper Safe Levels of Vitamin A, 8
4. Vitamin D Sterols Used in Human and Animal Nutrition, 12
5. Research Findings of High Levels of Vitamin D in Animals, 17
6. Estimation of Safe Upper Dietary Levels of Vitamin D3 for Animals, 20
7. Relative Biopotencies of Vitamin E-Active Compounds and Analogues, 25
8. Research Findings of High Levels of Vitamin E in Animals, 26
9. Research Findings of High Levels of Vitamin K in Animals, 34
10. Research Findings of High Levels of Ascorbic Acid in Animals, 38
11. Research Findings of High Levels of Thiamin in Animals, 45
12. Research Findings of High Levels of Niacin in Animals, 50
13. Research Findings of High Levels of Riboflavin in Animals, 56
14. Research Findings of High Levels of Vitamin Be (Pyridoxine) in Animals, 60
15. Research Findings of High Levels of Biotin in Animals, 72
16. Research Findings of High Levels of Vitamin BE in Animals, 75
17. Research Findings of High Levels of Choline in Animals, 79
18. Appendix Table: Estimated Vitamin Requirements of Domestic and Laboratory
Animals (Dry Diet Bases), 88
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