|
Items in cart [0] |
Questions? Call 888-624-8373 |
| Copyright © 2009. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Terms of Use and Privacy Statement |
Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page 1
Introduction
Like computers, livestock for use in developing countries should be
getting smaller and becoming more "personal." Conventional "main-
frames," such as cattle, are too large for the world's poorest people;
they require too much space and expense. "Miniframes," such as the
conventional breeds of sheep and goats, have an increasingly important
role to play. But tiny, "user-friendly" species for home use are the
ones highlighted in this report. We have called them "microlivestock. " ~
There are two types of microlivestock. One consists of extremely
small forms of conventional livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats,
and pigs. The other consists of species that are inherently small-
poultry, rabbits, and rodents, for instance.
Microlivestock are important because the developing world's animal
production is only a fraction of what it should be. Throughout Latin
America, Asia, and Africa, the poor eat almost no meat, milk, or
eggs the most nutritious foods. It is estimated, for example, that in
Mexico 25 million campesinos cannot afford meat. In poor countries,
even the middle class eats less meat in a year than the populations of
North America and Europe eat in a month. Malnutrition is common
and its effects, especially on children, can be debilitating. It is one of
mankind's most serious imbalances and most pressing problems.
Rural families in the Third World usually subsist mainly on the
products from their homes or farms. Thus, if we are to help their
livestock production, more attention must be given to animals that are
sized for their situations. Examples discussed in the report are
summarized here.
Microbreeds Small breeds of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs are
common in the developing world. Because they are often raised for
' For purposes of this study we have coined terms such as '`microlivestock," "micro-
breeds," "microcattle." These words emphasize the commonality of smallness among
species as diverse as sheep, chickens, and iguanas. Although words such as ''dwarf"
and "miniature" could have been used, they already have connotations within animal
science, and they lack the spark of newness and future promise that we are attempting
to foster.
OCR for page 2
OCR for page 3
INTRODUCTION
subsistence rather than for commerce, the national and global contri-
bution that they make is often overlooked. These small, hardy animals
deserve much greater recognition.
Later chapters highlight dozens of promising microbreeds. All are
less than half average size; some are far smaller than that. The "mini-
Brahman" cow of Mexico is only 60 cm tall and weighs 140 kg; the
southern Sudan dwarf sheep of eastern Africa can weigh as little as
11 kg; the Terai goat of Nepal weighs less than 12 kg; and the cuing
pig of Mexico weighs merely 10 kg.
Poultry The widespread use of poultry in Third World villages
demonstrates the importance of small, easily managed, household
livestock. Small size, the ability to forage for themselves, and a natural
desire to stay around the house put chickens, ducks, guinea fowl, and
other birds among the most vital resources of rural Asia, Africa, and
Latin America. Scratching a living out of the dirt, dust, ditches, and
debris, these often-scrawny creatures are a resource to be taken
seriously. For the most poverty stricken, a bony bird may be the only
source of meat during much of a lifetime.
Among poultry, there are many underrated, but highly promising,
species, including:
· Pigeon. These birds forage widely but return home, thereby
providing the farmers with squab, one of the tastiest of all meats.
· Quail. Small and efficient, they, too, are suited to home rearing,
and in Japan and a few other countries, large numbers are raised
commercially in very small space.
· Muscovy. A native of South American rainforests, this bird is a
major poultry resource of France, Taiwan, and a few other countries.
Tame, tolerant, and tough, it deserves greater recognition everywhere.
· Guinea Fowl. One of the most self-reliant of all domestic birds,
this native of Africa is raised in huge numbers in Europe notably
France. Its potential for increased production elsewhere is exceptional.
· Turkey. The traditional turkey of Mexico still exists as a scavenger
bird in villages and household backyards. Unlike the highly selected
modern breeds, it is self-reliant, robust, and disease-resistant.
Rabbits Like chickens, rabbits exemplify the vast possibilities that
microlivestock offer for increasing meat production in the most poverty-
stricken parts of the world. Captive rabbits have been popular as food
Opposite: Microlivestock pigeons, turkeys, chickens, and goats being fed in a village
in Togo. (FAO)
OCR for page 4
4
MICROLIVESTOCK
at least since the time of the Romans. Rabbit rearing has been well
established in Europe and China, and now national rabbit projects
have begun in many developing nations.
Rodents Some 7,000 years ago, guinea pigs were domesticated as a
source of food for the high Andes; even today in the uplands of Bolivia,
Peru, and Ecuador, most Indians raise them inside their homes and
regard them as an essential part of life. For many Indians, these indoor
livestock are the main source of meat. Prolific, tractable, and easy to
feed, house, and handle, guinea pigs are even kept in downtown
apartment buildings-often in boxes under the bed.
Other rodents might also be suited to domestication; for instance, the
potentially tamable, clean-living species of South American fields and
woodlands agouti, capybara, hutia, mare, coypu, pace, and vizcacha.
Two remarkable domestication programs have been started in Africa:
the grasscutter in West Africa and the giant rat in Nigeria. Both
animals provide popular "bushmeat" and researchers are now learning
to raise them in captivity. (Because of its tangy taste, Ghanaians
actually pay three times more for grasscutter meat than for beef!)
Antelope Another wild African mammal with potential for "household
animal husbandry," the blue duiker, is a rabbit-sized antelope. In
some areas of Central and Southern Africa the demand is so great that
its population is declining at an alarming rate. Duiker rearing, if it can
be made successful, might provide both food and an economic alter-
native to slaughtering the wild populations. It is reported that duikers
are easy to maintain and they reproduce well in captivity.
The meat of several other tiny antelope species is also much sought
in many African countries, and these animals are also suitably sized
to feed the average family at one meal.
Deer Several species of tiny deer-smaller than many dogs might
make useful microlivestock, although much research is needed before
their true potential can be judged. Normal-sized deer were once
considered too easily frightened to be reared as domestic livestock,
but several species are now raised on thousands of deer farms in New
Zealand as well as in at least a dozen other countries.
Mouse deer and musk deer (which, strictly speaking, are not true
deer at all) are of microlivestock size and are also possible future
livestock. The musk deer produces one of the most valuable materials
in the animal kingdom-more valuable, in fact, than gold. The musk
from the male's glands is used in oriental medicines as well as in
European perfumes.
OCR for page 5
INTRODUCTION
-
5
Iguanas Over much of the Caribbean and Latin America, iguanas are
a traditional source of food. Indeed, the meat of these large herbivorous
lizards is so delicious they are being hunted to extinction throughout
their wide range. Their eggs are much enjoyed also. Programs in
Panama, Costa Rica, E1 Salvador, Curac,ao, and Argentina have
developed simple methods to hatch and rear three iguana species.
Bees Honey bees are present almost everywhere, and honey and wax
are high-value products that demand little processing and can be stored
and transported easily. Innovations in equipment and technique have
made beekeeping successful in the tropics without requiring sophisti-
cated hives or elaborate training. Raising bees can also benefit the
many crops that require pollination.
THE MICROLIVESTOCK ADVANTAGES
Although animal science has traditionally emphasized bigness, small-
ness has its advantages. Some of these are summarized below.
Economic
Microlivestock lend themselves to economic niches that are not
easily filled by large livestock. Much of their potential is for subsistence
production. They are promising for the many peasants who, being
outside the cash economy, are now unable to purchase meat, milk,
cheese, or eggs. These people can afford only animals that can be
raised within the home or backyard under ambient climatic conditions
and on feeds that are cheap and easily available.
A subsistence farmer is likely to benefit more from small species
than from large because of several factors:
· The animals are less expensive to buy.
· They are less of a financial risk to maintain. (A farmer with several
small animals is less vulnerable to loss than a farmer with a single
large animal, a feature that is particularly important in subsistence
farming where success determines whether the family will survive.)
· They give a faster return on investment. (Small size generally
signifies high reproductive capacity and a fast turnover.)
· They provide flexibility. (Farmers can more easily change the size
of their herd or flock to match the amount of feed available at a given
time. Also, they can sell animals according to the family's fluctuating
needs for cash or food.)
OCR for page 6
6
MICROLIVESTOCK
RATIOI`IALE FOR LIYESTOCK PRODUCTION
Many have argued that livestock raising should be discour-
aged, that it is a primary cause of desertification through
overgrazing and that it is an inefficient converter of basic
material and energy into human food. "Grow more pulses,
grow more grains," these people CIy. Their arguments can be
valid where the land has high potential for permanent culti-
vation. Much of the world's surface, however, does not fit into
that category, and it is in these areas and for those people
who have no access to arable lands that a convincing case for
livestock can most easily be made. As W.J.A. Payne has written:*
· Livestock, particularly ruminants, can process forage and
waste crop materials inedible by man into nutritionally desir-
ablefooUproducts, many ofbighprotein, mineraland vitamin
content and including some of high caloric value.
· Approximately 40 percent of total land available in devel-
oping countries can be used only for some form of forage
production and a further 30 percent is classified as forest with
some potential for the production offorage. Some 12 percent
of the world's total population live in areas where people
depend almost entirely on the products obtained from rumi-
nant livestock.
· Livestock provide a range of extremely valuable by-prod-
ucts. Dung is not only a fertilizer and soil-stabil~zer but also a
fuel of often considerably greater value than the fodder con-
sumed in its production. Other by-products, especially hides
and wool, form the bases of rural enterprises that may provide
significant incomes to the poorest members of society.
· Animal, plant and human life are ecologically interdepen-
dent The establishment of agricultural systems in which
livestock are integrated with crops, forestry and aquaculture
Is essential for the improvement of overall productivity.
Livestock produce food that adds to the nutritional quality
and variety of human diets. Although it is possible for humans
to exist without them, these foods are relished and sought
after by the majority of humanity. These foods include meat,
eggs and processed products such as biltong and cheese.
W.J.A. Payne, "The desirability and implications of encouraging intensive animal
production enterprises in developing countries, " from IntensiveAnimal Production
in Developing Countnes, A.J. Smith and R.J. Gunn, eds. Occasional Publication
Ho. 4, British Society for Animal Production, 1981.
OCR for page 7
INTRODUCTION
7
· They provide a steadier source of income.
· They increase the chances of successful breeding because greater
numbers are usually kept. (This also means that breeding stock is
more likely to be retained in times of scarcity.)
· They are more easily transported. (Who hasn't traveled in a Third
World bus or train without chickens, ducks, or guinea pigs as fellow
passengers?)
· In some cases they are more efficient converters of food energy.
There are also a number of other benefits to small species.
· Reduced Spoilage. A portion of meat that comes in a "package"
of a size that can be readily consumed by a family is important in
areas where refrigeration is unavailable or uneconomic. A family can
eat the meat produced by most microlivestock in one meal or in one
day to minimize the risk of spoilage.
· Efficient Use of Space. The space required for handling and feeding
microlivestock is proportionately less than that required for large
animals. Low space requirements make many microlivestock (such as
guinea pigs, rabbits, pigeons, and quail) available to landless rural
inhabitants who have no room for a cow. This is particularly important
with respect to feed production.
· Cheaper Facilities. Facilities and equipment required for micro-
livestock are, by and large, smaller and simpler than those required
for large animals. They often can be made from local products or scrap
material or both.
· Ease of Management. Farmers and villagers can manage small
animals more easily than large, which is an advantage in the many
places where women and children are the main keepers of livestock.
· Increased Productivity. Small animals tend to fit well into existing
farming systems, thereby expanding the resource base and recycling
nutrients. Some for example bees, ducks, and geese can feed
themselves by scavenging.
· By-Products. Many species have fur, feathers, skins, and other
by-products that are often more valuable than their meat, milk, or
eggs. Examples include the feet and tails of rabbits, musk from musk
deer, and pelts from rodents such as coypu. Processing such by-
products creates diversification for the farmer and perhaps jobs for
the village.
. . . .. .
.
Feed
In general, small species tend to expand the food base by using a
wider array of resources than do major livestock such as cattle. Many
OCR for page 8
8
MICROLIVESTOCK
can be raised on feeds that people discard: fibrous residues, industry
by-products, or kitchen wastes. Some collect minute feeds that other-
wise go unused. For example, chickens and pigeons gather scattered
seeds, turkeys gobble up insects, geese graze water weeds, iguanas
feed in the tops of trees, and bees collect nectar and pollen from
flowers that may be miles away.
Even some grazing microlivestock prefer different forages from
those preferred by cattle. Antelope and deer, for instance, browse tree
leaves; capybara and grasscutters eat reeds. Combining microlivestock
with conventional livestock results in a more complete utilization of
forage resources and greater animal production per hectare.
Under conditions of abundance, small size may be of no advantage
in mammals, but if feed is limited, it is of great help. A small animal
(or its keeper) needs to cover less area to fulfill its daily requirements,
so that microlivestock may grow fat in areas where the forage is too
sparse to support a larger animal. This is particularly vital when there
are seasonal bottlenecks. For example, feed may be plentiful enough
for most of the year to supply many large animals; however, the dry
season may greatly restrict the numbers that can be kept.
Although small animals generally require proportionately higher
inputs of feed, they also grow proportionately faster (see sidebar
opposite). In addition, species such as rabbits, guinea pigs, and
grasscutters digest fibrous matter with surprising efficiency, even
though they are not true ruminants like cattle, sheep, and goats.
Reproduction
Many small animals have high reproductive capacity with short
gestation periods, large numbers of offspring, and rapid juvenile growth.
They tend to reach sexual maturity at a younger age than large animals,
and the interval between the generations can be very short. Thus,
meat or other products can be produced more rapidly and more evenly
throughout the year.
Cows, for example, produce a maximum of one calf per year. A
pig, on the other hand, may produce 7 or more young; a rabbit, 30 or
more; a chicken, more than 100.
Adaptability and Harcliness
The survival rates and manageability of many small breeds and
species can be outstanding. Smallness is often an adaptation to harsh
environment. Indeed, a major promise for microlivestock is in special
environmental niches. Where cold, heat, temperature fluctuations,
OCR for page 9
INTRODUCTION
9
FOOD UTILIZATION VERSUS BODY- SIZE
1 ton of hay ace,
.~
~ _ '\61 ~ -
Animals
Total body weight
Food consumption per day
Duration of 1 ton of food
Heat loss per day
Gain in weight per day
Gain from 1 ton of food
1 ton of hay :,`
,~9
1 steer
590 kg
7.6 kg
120 days
20,000 kcal
0.9 kg
109 kg
300 rabbits
590 kg
30 kg
30 days
80,000 kcal
3.6 kg
109 kg
Compared to large animals, smaller animals have a higher metabolic rate per unit
weight and waste more energy per kg body weight per day as heat. This would seem at
first sight to make them less efficient than large animals. This is not necessarily the
case, however. The figure shows how rabbits can utilize feed just as efficiently as a
steer. Their greater rate of heat loss per unit weight is compensated by a correspondingly
greater rate of growth per unit weight.
With rabbits, 10 20-kg animals can be raised on the same feed as one 200-kg cow,
producing the same amount of meat and doing it faster.
* Figure adapted from Fire of Life: An Introduction to Animal Energetics, by Max Kleiber
aridity, or humidity are extreme, microlivestock are likely to show
their greatest advantage. Chickens, guinea fowl, goats, and many other
small species already live in villages, homes, and backyards in harsh
and disease-prone climates, and are usually given no care and some-
times no food: they have to scavenge for their sustenance and survive
as best they can. Such selection pressures result in animals of
remarkable adaptability, tolerance, and robustness.
Some microlivestock can produce under conditions where conven-
tional species die. The capybara, for instance, is at home in the Latin
American lowlands, where the climate is hot and humid and Hoods
cause seasonal inundations. Cattle, by contrast, die because of mal-
nutrition, foot rot, or drowning. Other microlivestock species with a
wide tolerance to ecological extremes include the turkey, pigeon, and
OCR for page 10
10
MICROLIVESTOCK
bee. And some dwarf breeds of cattle, sheep, goats, and pigs show
surprising tolerance to trypanosomes, the parasites that make conven-
tional breeds impossible to maintain throughout much of Africa.
Some small species can be raised in cities, where poverty and
malnutrition are often worse than in rural areas. It is estimated, for
instance, that one million livestock exist in Cairo, not counting the
pigeons that are raised on countless rooftops. Goats and cattle are
common in urban India, and many Third World cities have far more
chickens than people.
MICROLIVESTOCK LIMITATIONS
Raising microlivestock is not a panacea for the Third World's food
problems. Efforts to develop them will not be without difficulties.
Some likely problems are noted here.
High Energy Requirements
Smaller animals tend to have a higher feed requirement per unit of
body weight than large animals. Anatomical and physiological con-
straints prevent them from meeting their relatively high energy re-
quirements simply by increasing the rate of food ingestion. Therefore,
for optimum production, some small animals, particularly nonrumi-
nants, require feed that is higher in protein and lower in fiber than
large animals. This is particularly true when the small animals are
compared with ruminants such as cattle, sheep, and goats.
Increased Labor Requirements
The advantages of low investment, fast return on capital, flexibility,
and efficient resource utilization are offset by higher demands for
labor. Keeping small animals often requires considerable effort, and
its economic viability may depend on the availability of cheap and
willing labor. Many small animals are raised at home by family
members, such as children, the elderly, and the handicapped, who
have time available and whose labor costs are nominally zero.
Diseases
Some potential microlivestock are undomesticated, and resistance
to diseases and parasites is one justification for their consideration.
OCR for page 11
INTRODUCTION
11
However, the general healthiness of a species when it is free-ranging
can be a misleading guide for its husbandry. Confining any animal in
high density invariably increases the potential for the spread of
infectious diseases and parasites. Moreover, mismanagement can foster
respiratory and gastrointestinal diseases (such as salmonella or coc-
cidiosis) that are rare among scattered populations.
Some microlivestock are potential reservoirs for diseases that affect
not only local animals but people as well. This may limit their successful
development in some areas. Although the dangers are often exagger-
ated, controls may be needed, particularly of rinderpest, tickborne
diseases, and those diseases communicable to humans.
Predation
Small size makes microlivestock easy prey.
Lack of Research
Techniques to manage some microlivestock species are not yet well
established. The development of appropriate husbandry techniques,
as well as a better understanding of the animals' particular biological
and behavioral characteristics, will be needed before major progress
can be made. These species (for instance rodents, deer, and iguanas)
may require collection of different genotypes, as well as studies of
diseases, nutrition, and management.
Complex Logistics
It is complicated and expensive to reach millions of widely scattered
peasants, each having only a handful of small animals. Even though
total production may far exceed that of commercial farms raising large
animals, the smallholdings are often dispersed, their animals are often
used for subsistence rather than commerce, and their managers are
often ill-trained and illiterate.
Legislative Restrictions
The use of some microlivestock species may be restricted by
legislation. For instance, some countries have meat and veterinary
laws that work against the development of species other than cattle.
OCR for page 12
12
MICROLIVESTOCK
Others have laws to protect wildlife, which could be important in the
case of species such as antelope, deer, pace, and iguana.
Lack of Markets
Microlivestock need not be just for home or local consumption; they
can also be raised for market. But some commercial programs, including
some with rabbits and guinea pigs, have failed because no public
demand was developed.
Resistance to New Species
People have close associations with livestock, and in most cultures
they do not easily accept animals or animal foods that are radically
different from their traditional ones. In general, the ties between certain
ethnic groups and a particular species or breed is very strong (one
reason, for example, why European colonists introduced their own
large breeds of cattle and sheep to Africa and Asia, paying little
attention to small indigenous breeds). Moreover, people who are used
to bringing the animal to the feed rather than the feed to the animal
may resist a small animal that has to be penned up and fed by hand.
Opposition to SmalIness
Finally, there seems to be an innate human trait that considers bigger
to be better, especially among the common livestock. For example,
because many tropical cattle are small, there is strong inclination on
the part of those responsible for livestock improvement to dismiss
them or to increase their size by crossing them with large breeds.
FUTURE OF MICROLIVESTOCK
Small animals are likely to become increasingly important. As human
populations increase, the space available for growing forage decreases,
and this phenomenon favors small animals. Many villagers already
have little or no pastureland. Some live in areas (the rice-growing
areas of Southeast Asia, for instance) where crops are grown on almost
every square meter almost every month of the year. Microlivestock
are potentially important for urban areas of developing countries as
well. There, too, land is at a premium and is usually inadequate for
raising conventional livestock.
OCR for page 13
INTRODUCTION
13
So far, however, microlivestock have been largely ignored. Com-
pared with cattle, they have been accorded little scientific effort. In
the drive towards larger animals, stimulated by experience in the
temperate zone, the virtually unstudied gene pool of small species and
breeds has been mostly bypassed. There have been few attempts to
assess or improve their farm productivity.
This is unfortunate, and it is perhaps due to the fact that small
animals may be less efficient at digesting certain foods and therefore
technically less attractive than large, "modern" breeds. But to Third
World peasants, an animal's efficiency is far less important than its
survivability and manageability. If an animal cannot be raised under
village conditions, its feed-use efficiency or milk yield is irrelevant.
Microlivestock production should be integrated into most rural-
development projects. Small animals offer a way to improve the lives
of people who are hard to reach by other methods. Only by expanding
research on the husbandry, hygiene, nutrition, reproduction, physiol-
ogy, and breeding can the promise of animals sized for small farms
and villages be fulfilled. Moreover, the costs will be small compared
with those of programs for large animals.2
Specifically, experiment stations should produce and promote meth-
ods and materials for use in rearing microlivestock. Donors and
development institutions, planners, and policymakers should note the
potentials of microlivestock and the benefits that can be derived from
them. Teaching manuals and materials are needed, and classes in
microlivestock husbandry should be included in rural school curricula.
Raising personal livestock on weeds and table scraps in cages beside
the house or boxes under the bed will, in many instances, get quality
protein to the most poverty stricken more effectively than raising large
livestock on pastures.
Although small size confers many advantages, the question is not
whether the large or small animal is "best," but rather how well each
can meet a person's varying requirements. In a given situation, livestock
can be too small or too large. But the fact remains that not everyone
who wants meat or money has the resources to acquire, keep, manage,
or utilize a large animal.
The key is balance. Both microlivestock and traditional livestock
deserve serious attention. Indeed, it seems likely that the two will
seldom compete. Most microlivestock complement traditional livestock
because of unique physical, physiological, behavioral, or economic
characteristics. They increase the range of options for the millions of
poor for whom the choice may not even be between large and small
livestock, but between microlivestock and no livestock at all.
2 For example, in E1 Salvador a highly successful, nationwide, rabbit-development
project costs less than the price of a single stud bull.
OCR for page 14
~ it'
It's an unfortunate fact that small animals don't have the prestige
among Third World farmers that large animals do (perhaps this
arose because children can look after goats and sheep but it takes
men to look after cattleJ. Even sheep and goats are not accorded
the same stature as cattle.
Hugh Popenoe
Breeds and varieties were created from mutant genes and thus have
become living reservoirs of these genes, holding them for use in
future generations of mankind.
Anonymous
Representative terms from entire chapter:
third world
