| ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
|
|
|||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Copyright © 2010. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Terms of Use and Privacy Statement |
Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page R1
Mathematics and Physics of
Emerging Biomedical Imaging
Committee on the Mathematics and Physics of
Emerging Dynamic Biomedical Imaging
Board on Mathematical Sciences
Board on Physics and Astronomy
Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications
National Research Council
and
Board on Biobehavioral Sciences and Mental Disorders
Institute of Medicine
National Academy Press
Washington, D.C. 1996
OCR for page R2
Page ii
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
Support for this project was provided by the Advanced Research Projects Agency, the Department of Energy, and the National Institute of Mental Health.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 95-72622 International Standard Book Number 0-309-05387-0
Copyright 1996 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Available from National Academy Press 2101 Constitution Avenue, NW Washington, DC 20418 Available on the Internet via the World Wide Web at the URL: http://www.nas.edu/
Printed in the United States of America
COVER ILLUSTRATIONS: The upper figure was produced by rapid volumetric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) after injection of a paramagnetic contrast agent and shows vessel anatomy, kidney perfusion, and ureters (bright). The contrast agent causes urine and blood to produce different magnetic resonance signals. (Illustration courtesy of George Holland, University of Pennsylvania and General Electric Medical Systems.) The lower illustration, an example of modern non-invasive computed tomography (CT), shows calcium deposits in the aorta (center of image) and the blood vessel anatomy. It was produced using rapid data collection via spiral CT with injected contrast material. (Illustration courtesy of Siemens Medical Systems.)
OCR for page R3
Page iii
COMMITTEE ON THE MATHEMATICS AND PHYSICS OF EMERGING DYNAMIC BIOMEDICAL IMAGING
THOMAS BUDINGER, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Co-chair FELIX WEHRLI, University of Pennsylvania Medical Center, Co-chair S. MORRIS BLUMENFELD, General Electric Medical Systems F. ALBERTO GRUNBAUM, University of California at Berkeley R. MARK HENKELMAN, University of Toronto PAUL C. LAUTERBUR, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign WILFRIED LOEFFLER, Siemens Medical Systems, Inc. FRANK NATTERER, University of Muenster SARAH JANE NELSON, University of California at San Francisco LAWRENCE SHEPP, AT&T Bell Laboratories ROBERT G. SHULMAN, Yale University BENJAMIN MING WAH TSUI, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
SCOTT T. WEIDMAN, Senior Staff Officer, Board on Mathematical Sciences ROBERT L. RIEMER, Associate Director, Board on Physics and Astronomy CONSTANCE M. PECHURA, Director, Board on Biobehavioral Sciences and Mental Disorders
OCR for page R4
Page iv
BOARD ON MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES
AVNER FRIEDMAN, University of Minnesota, Chair LOUIS AUSLANDER, City University of New York HYMAN BASS, Columbia University MARY ELLEN BOCK, Purdue University PETER E. CASTRO, Eastman Kodak Company FAN R.K. CHUNG, University of Pennsylvania R. DUNCAN LUCE, University of California at Irvine SUSAN M. MONTGOMERY, University of Southern California GEORGE L. NEMHAUSER, Georgia Institute of Technology ANIL NERODE, Cornell University INGRAM OLKIN, Stanford University RONALD F. PEIERLS, Brookhaven National Laboratory DONALD ST. P. RICHARDS, University of Virginia MARY F. WHEELER, Rice University WILLIAM P. ZIEMER, Indiana University
Ex Officio Member JON R. KETTENRING, Bell Communications Research, Inc. Chair, Committee on Applied and Theoretical Statistics
Staff JOHN R. TUCKER, Director SCOTT T. WEIDMAN, Senior Staff Officer (on loan from Board on Chemical Sciences and Technology) JACK ALEXANDER, Staff Officer RUTH E. O'BRIEN, Staff Associate BARBARA WRIGHT, Administrative Assistant
OCR for page R5
Page v
BOARD ON PHYSICS AND ASTRONOMY
DAVID N. SCHRAMM, University of Chicago, Chair ROBERT C. DYNES, University of California at San Diego, Vice-chair LLOYD ARMSTRONG, University of Southern California DAVID H. AUSTON, Rice University IRA B. BERNSTEIN, Yale University PRAVEEN CHAUDHARI, IBM T.J. Watson Research Center SANDRA M. FABER, University of California at Santa Cruz HANS FRAUENFELDER, Los Alamos National Laboratory JEROME I. FRIEDMAN, Massachusetts Institute of Technology MARGARET J. GELLER, Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics MARTHA P. HAYNES, Cornell University WILLIAM KLEMPERER, Harvard University ALBERT NARATH, Sandia National Laboratories JOSEPH M. PROUD, GTE Corporation ANTHONY C.S. READHEAD, California Institute of Technology ROBERT C. RICHARDSON, Cornell University JOHANNA STACHEL, State University of New York at Stony Brook DAVID T. WILKINSON, Princeton University
Staff DONALD C. SHAPERO, Director ROBERT L. RIEMER, Associate Director DANIEL MORGAN, Staff Officer NATASHA CASEY, Program Assistant STEPHANIE Y. SMITH, Secretary
OCR for page R6
Page vi
COMMISSION ON PHYSICAL SCIENCES, MATHEMATICS, AND APPLICATIONS
ROBERT J. HERMANN, United Technologies Corporation, Chair STEPHEN L. ADLER, Institute for Advanced Study PETER M. BANKS, Environmental Research Institute of Michigan SYLVIA T. CEYER, Massachusetts Institute of Technology L. LOUIS HEGEDUS, W.R. Grace & Company JOHN E. HOPCROFT, Cornell University RHONDA HUGHES, Bryn Mawr College SHIRLEY A. JACKSON, U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission KENNETH I. KELLERMANN, National Radio Astronomy Observatory KEN KENNEDY, Rice University THOMAS A. PRINCE, California Institute of Technology JEROME SACKS, National Institute of Statistical Sciences L.E. SCRIVEN, University of Minnesota LEON T. SILVER, California Institute of Technology CHARLES P. SLICHTER, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign ALVIN W. TRIVELPIECE, Oak Ridge National Laboratory SHMUEL WINOGRAD, IBM T.J. Watson Research Center CHARLES A. ZRAKET, MITRE Corporation (retired)
NORMAN METZGER, Executive Director
OCR for page R7
Page vii
BOARD ON BIOBEHAVIORAL SCIENCES AND MENTAL DISORDERS
JOSEPH T. COYLE, Harvard Medical School, Chair ELLEN FRANK, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Vice-chair ALBERT BANDURA, Stanford University RICHARD J. BONNIE, University of Virginia WILLIAM E. BUNNEY, JR., University of California at Irvine GLEN R. ELLIOTT, University of California at San Francisco RONALD A. FELDMAN, Columbia University BEATRIX A. HAMBURG, William T. Grant Foundation JIMMIE HOLLAND, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center PHILIP S. HOLZMAN, Harvard University SPERO M. MANSON, University of Colorado Health Sciences Center ROGER E. MEYER, George Washington University ROBERT MICHELS, Cornell University Medical College CHARLES P. O'BRIEN, University of Pennsylvania Medical Center STEVEN S. SHARFSTEIN, Sheppard and Enoch Pratt Hospital GARY L. TISCHLER, University of California at Los Angeles STEPHEN G. WAXMAN, Yale University
Staff CONSTANCE M. PECHURA, Director TERRI SCANLAN, Administrative Assistant
OCR for page R8
Page viii
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Harold Liebowitz is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce Alberts and Dr. Harold Liebowitz are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
OCR for page R9
Page ix
PREFACE The Committee on the Mathematics and Physics of Emerging Dynamic Biomedical Imaging was constituted in 1993 and given the charge to "write a report that gives a survey of the emerging contributions of the mathematical sciences and physics to dynamic biomedical imaging and identifies and recommends specific mathematical sciences and physics research to accelerate the development and implementation of new medical imaging systems." At its first meeting, the committee discussed the frontiers of biomedical imaging that could profit from more involvement from physicists and mathematical scientists, outlined its proposed report, and identified individuals, listed below, who could supplement the committee's expertise in documenting these frontiers and the related research opportunities. At its subsequent two meetings, the committee drew on the large quantity of valuable drafts to generate the survey it envisioned. It is hoped that the present report will provide a readable introduction to emerging techniques of biomedical imaging for mathematical scientists and physicists and encourage some of them to apply their skills to the research challenges that will make these emerging techniques practical.
The committee gratefully acknowledges the substantial contributions of the following people, who provided material for the committee to incorporate in its report:
Richard Albanese, Brooks Air Force Base Robert Alfano, City University of New York Simon Arridge, University College, London Randall Barbour, SUNY Health Science Center at Brooklyn Harrison Barrett, University of Arizona James Berryman, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory Douglas P. Boyd, IMATRON-West Britton Chance, University of Pennsylvania Margaret Cheney, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute Rolf Clack, University of Utah James G. Colsher, GE Medical Systems Robert Cox, Medical College of Wisconsin Michel Defrise, Vrije Universiteit
OCR for page R10
Page x
Charles L. Dumoulin, General Electric R&D Center Alan C. Evans, Montreal Neurological Institute Stuart Foster, University of Toronto C. Franzone, University of Pavia E.C. Frey, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Michael M. Graham, University of Washington Enrico Gratton, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Peter J. Green, University of Bristol James F. Greenleaf, Mayo Clinic Grant T. Gullberg, University of Utah Semion Gutman, University of North Carolina at Charlotte E. Mark Haacke, Mallinckrodt Institute of Radiology Dennis M. Healy, Dartmouth College Manfried Hoke, University of Muenster Paul W. Hughett, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory James Hyde, Medical College of Wisconsin V. Isakov, Wichita State University Steven A. Johnson, University of Utah Valen E. Johnson, Duke University Willi A. Kalender, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg Linda Kaufman, AT&T Bell Laboratories Ronald Kikinis, Harvard Medical School Michael A. King, University of Massachusetts Medical School Michael Klibanov, University of North Carolina at Charlotte David Levin, University of Chicago Tom Lewellen, University of Washington Jorge Llacer, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Bernd Luetkenhoener, University of Muenster Albert Macovski, Stanford University Ravi S. Menon, University of Western Ontario at London Michael I. Miller, Washington University Charles Mistretta, University of Wisconsin at Madison Adrian Nachman, University of Rochester Claude Nahmias, Chedoke-McMaster Hospitals William D. O'Brien, Jr., University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign Matthew O'Donnell, University of Michigan John Ollinger, Washington University Arnulf Oppelt, Siemens Medical Engineering Group Walter W. Peppler, University of Wisconsin
OCR for page R11
Page xi
Stephen M. Pizer, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Jack Reid, Drexel University Joel G. Rogers, TRIUMF, University of British Columbia Yoram Rudy, Case Western Reserve University David Saloner, Veterans Affairs Medical Center, San Francisco Guenter Schwierz, Siemens Medical Engineering Group V. Sharafutdinov, Institute of Mathematics, Novosibirsk Gunnar Sparr, Lund Institute of Technology Terry Spinks, Hammersmith Hospital J. Sylvester, University of Washington Robert Turner, University of London Eugene Veklerov, Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory Robert Weisskoff, Massachusetts General Hospital
The committee is also grateful to the six anonymous reviewers, whose comments strengthened this report considerably.
OCR for page R12
OCR for page R13
Page xiii
CONTENTS 1
INTRODUCTION AND SUMMARY
1
Plates 1.1 through 1.7 follow page 12.
2
X-RAY PROJECTION IMAGING
13
2.1 Introduction
13
2.2 Mammography
15
2.2.1 Scanning Methods
15
2.2.2 Area Detectors
16
2.3 Chest Radiography
18
2.3.1 Scanning Methods
18
2.3.2 Area Detectors
18
2.4 Digital Fluoroscopy
19
2.5 Portal Imaging
20
2.6 Research Opportunities
20
2.7 Suggested Reading
21
3
X-RAY COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
23
3.1 Introduction
23
3.1.1 History
23
3.1.2 Principle of Operation
24
3.2 Present Status of CT Instrumentation and Technology
26
3.2.1 X-Ray Tubes
26
3.2.2 Detector Systems
26
3.2.3 Image Artifacts
28
3.2.4 Quantitative CT
29
3.2.5 Requirements for High-Speed CT
30
3.3 Spiral CT
31
3.4 Electron Beam Techniques
32
3.5 Data Handling and Display Techniques
33
3.6 Research Opportunities
34
3.7 Suggested Reading
35
4
MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING
37
4.1 Principles of Magnetic Resonance Imaging
38
4.2 Hardware
41
4.2.1 Magnet Systems: Current Status and Opportunities
41
OCR for page R14
Page xiv
4.2.2 Pulsed-field MRI Systems
43
4.2.3 Radio-frequency Coils for MRI
45
4.2.4 Magnetic Field Gradients
48
4.2.5 Research Opportunities for MRI Hardware
53
4.2.6 Suggested Reading Related to MRI Hardware
54
4.3 Dynamic MR Image Reconstruction
56
4.3.1 Partial Fourier Reconstruction
56
4.3.2 Reduced Gibbs Ringing
58
4.3.3 High-speed K-space Coverage Techniques
60
4.3.4 Research Opportunities in Dynamic MR Image Reconstruction
61
4.3.5 Suggested Reading Related to Dynamic MR Image Reconstruction
61
4.4 Applications of Dynamic MRI
62
4.4.1 Blood Flow
62
4.4.2 Diffusion Imaging
65
4.4.3 Other Tissue Parameters
66
4.4.4 Functional Brain MRI
68
4.4.5 Multinuclear MRI
75
4.4.6 Microscopic Imaging
78
4.4.7 Research Opportunities Related to Applying Dynamic MRI
80
4.4.8 Suggested Reading on Applications of Dynamic MRI
83
5
SINGLE PHOTON EMISSION COMPUTED TOMOGRAPHY
89
5.1 Introduction
89
5.2 Physical and Instrumentation Factors That Affect SPECT Images
91
5.3 SPECT Instrumentation
92
5.3.1 SPECT System Designs
92
5.3.2 Special Collimators
93
5.3.3 New Radiation Detector Technologies
94
5.4 SPECT Image Reconstruction
96
5.4.1 The SPECT Reconstruction Problem
96
5.4.2 SPECT Image Reconstruction Methods
98
5.5 Research Opportunities
102
5.6 Suggested Reading
103
6
POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY
105
6.1 Introduction
105
6.1.1 History
105
6.1.2 Applications
106
OCR for page R15
Page xv
6.1.3 Principle of Operation
106
6.2 Current Status of PET Technology
108
6.2.1 y-Ray Detectors
108
6.2.2 Limitations of the Spatial Resolution
110
6.2.3 System Electronics
111
6.2.4 Data Correction and Reconstruction Algorithms
112
6.3 Three-Dimensional Acquisition and Reconstruction
114
6.3.1 Principle of Three-Dimensional Acquisition
114
6.3.2 Three-Dimensional Reconstruction
114
6.3.3 Scatter Correction in Three Dimensions
117
6.3.4 Attenuation Correction in Three Dimensions
118
6.4 Research Opportunities
119
6.5 Suggested Reading
119
7
ULTRASONICS
121
7.1 Introduction
121
7.2 Instrumentation
122
7.2.1 Transducers
122
7.2.2 Ultrasonic Beam Forming
123
7.2.3 Signal Processing
124
7.3 Scattering
125
7.4 Ultrasonic Tomography
127
7.5 Research Opportunities
128
7.6 Suggested Reading
129
8
ELECTRICAL SOURCE IMAGING
133
8.1 Introduction
133
8.2 Outline of ESI Reconstruction Methods
135
8.2.1 Forward Problem
136
8.2.2 Inverse Problem
137
8.2.3 Temporal Regularization
138
8.3 Research Problems and Opportunities
140
8.4 Suggested Reading
141
9
ELECTRICAL IMPEDANCE TOMOGRAPHY
143
9.1 Introduction
143
9.2 Comparison to Other Modalities
143
9.3 Present Status of EIT and Limitations
144
9.4 Research Opportunities
145
OCR for page R16
Page xvi
9.5 Suggested Reading
146
10
MAGNETIC SOURCE IMAGING
147
10.1 Introduction
147
10.2 Mathematical Considerations
149
10.3 Source Models
150
10.4 Resolution
152
10.5 Summary
153
10.6 Research Opportunities
153
10.7 Suggested Reading
154
11
MEDICAL OPTICAL IMAGING
157
11.1 Introduction
157
11.2 Data Acquisition Strategies
158
11.3 Comparisons with Other Imaging Modalities
159
11.4 Possible Applications of Optical Tomography
161
11.5 Research Opportunities
162
11.6 Suggested Reading
163
12
IMAGE-GUIDED MINIMALLY INVASIVE DIAGNOSTIC AND THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONAL PROCEDURES
167
12.1 Therapeutic Intervention Experience with Different Imaging Modalities
168
12.1.1 X-Ray Imaging
168
12.1.2 Computed Tomography
168
12.1.3 Ultrasound
169
12.1.4 Endoscopy
170
12.1.5 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
170
12.2 The Roles of Imaging in Therapy
172
12.2.1 Planning
172
12.2.2 Guidance
173
12.2.3 Monitoring and Localization
175
12.2.4 Control
176
12.3 Thermal Surgery
177
12.3.1 Interstitial Laser Therapy
178
12.3.2 Cryotherapy
178
12.3.3 Focused Ultrasound
179
12.4 Research and Development Opportunities
182
12.5 Suggested Reading
185
OCR for page R17
Page xvii
13
FRONTIERS OF IMAGE PROCESSING FOR MEDICINE
187
13.1 Image Segmentation
189
13.2 Computational Anatomy
190
13.3 Registration of Multimodality Images
191
13.4 Synthesis of Parametric Images
192
13.5 Data Visualization
193
13.6 Treatment Planning
194
13.7 Research Opportunities
195
13.8 Suggested Reading
196
14
A CROSS-CUTTING LOOK AT THE MATHEMATICS OF EMERGING BIOMEDICAL IMAGING
199
14.1 Mathematical Models for Particular Imaging Modalities
199
14.1.1 Transmission Computed Tomography
199
14.1.2 Emission Computed Tomography
202
14.1.3 Ultrasound Computed Tomography
205
14.1.4 Optical Tomography
207
14.1.5 Electrical Impedance Tomography
209
14.1.6 Magnetic Resonance Imaging
209
14.1.7 Vector Tomography
211
14.1.8 Tensor Tomography
212
14.1.9 Magnetic Source Imaging
213
14.1.10 Electrical Source Imaging
214
14.2 Forward Problems
215
14.3 Inverse Problems
215
14.4 Ill-Posedness and Regularization
217
14.4.1 The Tikhonov-Phillips Method
218
14.4.2 The Truncated Singular Value Decomposition
219
14.4.3 Iterative Methods
219
14.4.4 Regularization by Discretization
220
14.4.5 Maximum Entropy
220
14.5 Sampling
221
14.5.1 Sampling in Real Space
221
14.5.2 Sampling in Fourier Space
222
14.6 Priors and Side Information
222
14.7 Research Opportunities
224
14.8 Suggested Reading
226
INDEX
231
OCR for page R18
Items in cart [0]
