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iCEANOG RAPHY
Naval Special Warfare
O P PO RT U N I T I E S A N D C H A L L E N G E S
Ocean Studies Board
Commission on Geosciences, Environment, and Resources
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C. 1997
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NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National
Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National
Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report
were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report has been reviewed by a group other than the authors according to procedures approved by a Report
Review Committee consisting of members of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of
Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine.
This report and the committee were supported by a contract with the Department of the Navy's Office of
Naval Research and the Office of the Oceanographer of the Navy. The views expressed herein are those of the
authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the sponsor.
Cover art, created by Jennifer Swerda, was inspired by surf zone images captured by the ARGUS monitoring
system deployed off Duck, North Carolina, in 1995. Ms. Swerda has studied fine arts for a number of years at
several institutions, most notably the Corcoran School of Art in Washington, D.C. A native Washingtonian, Ms.
Swerda resides in Silver Spring, Md.
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 97-76485
International Standard Book Number 0-309-05930-5
Additional copies of this report are available from:
National Academy Press
2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W.
Box 285
Washington, DC 20055
800-624-6242
202-334-3313 (in the Washington Metropolitan Area)
http://www.nap.edu
Copyright 1997 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
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SYMPOSIUM STEERING COMMITTEE
ARTHUR NOWELL, Chair, University of Washington, Seattle
ROB HOLMAN, Oregon State University, Corvallis
B. GREGORY MITCHELL, University of California San Diego, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla
JOAN OLTMAN-SHAY, Northwest Research Associates, Seattle, Washington
Federal Agency Liaisons
MELBOURNE G. BRISCOE, Office of Naval Research
EDWARD C. WHITMAN, Office of the Oceanographer of the Navy
Stay
DAN WALKER, Study Director
STEWART A. NELSON, Consultant
JENNIFER SWERDA, Project Assistant
. . .
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OCEAN STUDIES BOARD
KENNETH BRINK, Chair, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Massachusetts
ALICE ALLDREDGE, University of California, Santa Barbara
DAVID BRADLEY, Pennsylvania State University, State College
WILLIAM CURRY, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Massachusetts
ELLEN DRUFFEL, University of California, Irvine
RANA FINE, University of Miami, Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, Florida
CARL FRIEHE, University of California, Irvine
ROBERT B. GAGOSIAN, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Massachusetts
SUSAN MANNA, Oregon State University, Corvallis
JOHN E. HOBBIE, Marine Biological Laboratory, Woods Hole, Massachusetts
EILEEN E. HOFMANN, Old Dominion University, Norfolk, Virginia
JOHN KNAUSS, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island, Narragansett
ROBERT A. KNOX, University of California San Diego, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla
RAY KRONE, University of California, Davis
LOUIS }. LANZEROTTI, Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technologies, Murray Hill, New Jersey
JOHN }. MAGNUSON, University of Wisconsin, Madison
WILLIAM I. MERRELL, The H. John Heinz III Center for Science, Economics and the Environment,
Washington, D.C.
B. GREGORY MITCHELL, University of California San Diego, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla
NEIL OPDYKE, University of Florida, Gainesville
MICHAEL ORBACH, Duke University, Beaufort, North Carolina
TERRANCE }. QUINN, Juneau Center, School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, University of Alaska, Fairbanks
C. BARRY RALEIGH, University of Hawaii, Honolulu
,IAMES P. RAY, Shell Oil Company, Houston, Texas
GEORGE SOMERO, Stanford University, Hopkins Marine Station, Pacific Grove, California
PAUL STOFFA, University of Texas, Austin
Stay
MORGAN GOPNIK, Director
M. ELIZABETH CLARKE, Associate Director
EDWARD R. URBAN, JR., Program Officer
DAN WALKER, Program Officer
ROBIN MORRIS, Financial Associate
GLENN MERRILL, Research Associate
LORA TAYLOR, Senior Project Assistant
ANN CARLISLE, Project Assistant
SHARI MAGUIRE, Project Assistant
JENNIFER SWERDA, Project Assistant
V
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COMMISSION ON GEOSCIENCES, ENVIRONMENT, AND RESOURCES
GEORGE M. HORNBERGER, Chair, University of Virginia, Charlottesville
PATRICK R. ATKINS, Aluminum Company of America, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
,IAMES P. BRUCE, Canadian Climate Program Board, Ottawa, Ontario
WILLIAM L. FISHER, University of Texas, Austin
JERRY F. FRANKLIN, University of Washington, Seattle
THOMAS E. GRAEDEL, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
DEBRA KNOPMAN, Progressive Foundation, Washington, D.C.
KAI N. LEE, Williams College, Williamstown, Massachusetts
PERRY L. MCCARTY, Stanford University, California
JUDITH E. MCDOWELL, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Massachusetts
RICHARD A. MESERVE, Covington & Burling, Washington, D.C.
S. GEORGE PHILANDER, Princeton University, New Jersey
RAYMOND A. PRICE, Queen's University at Kingston, Ontario
THOMAS C. SCHELLING, University of Maryland, College Park
ELLEN SILBERGELD, University of Maryland Medical School, Baltimore
VICTORIA I. TSCHINKEL, Landers and Parsons, Tallahassee, Florida
E-AN ZEN, University of Maryland, College Park
Stay
MYRON UMAN, Acting Executive Director
GREGORY SYMMES, Assistant Executive Director
,IEANETTE SPOON, Administrative Officer
SANDI FITZPATRICK, Administrative Associate
MARQUITA SMITH, Administrative Assistant/Technology Analyst
v
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The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars
engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their
use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy
has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce
Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of
Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the
selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility of advising the federal
government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting
national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr.
William A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services
of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the
public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its Congressional
charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care,
research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the
broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising
the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council
has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy
of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communi-
ties. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts
and Dr. William A. Wulf are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
vim
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Preface
Sea, Air, and Land (SEAL) teams and other naval units involved in Naval Special Warfare have been
associated with excellence since their creation in 1970. Almost immediately upon inception, Navy SEALs
commanded the respect of members of the military community. As their training methods and military exploits
have become more familiar, they have also captured the imagination of the American public. SEAL is a term
associated with skill, endurance, and commitment. Yet beyond the heroism and public interest, lies an organiza-
tion that strives to command and utilize the variety of environments within which it operates.
Perhaps because of the unique relationship this group of warfighters has with the sea, SEAL teams, more than
any other special warfare unit, depend on environmental information to obtain a tactical advantage in the field.
Consequently, oceanographic and meteorological information can be as important to a SEAL team as any single
piece of equipment in its arsenal. The ability to provide accurate environmental information and useful predictions
will require that our understanding of the SEALs' operating environments continues to grow as their mission
evolves. Scientific research will play an important role in the Navy's efforts to support these unique warfighters.
Kenneth H. Brink
Ocean Studies Board, Chair
vat
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Acknowledgments
The Symposium on Oceanography and Naval Special Warfare was a collaborative effort of many individuals
within the Navy and academia. Consequently, this report reflects input from a number of individuals. In
particular, the steering committee would like to acknowledge the role of those individuals who led working group
discussions: Steve Elgar, Waves and Surf; Dave Aubrey, Currents and Tides; Edie Widder, Bioluminescence and
Marine Toxins; Chris Fairall, Electromagnetic and Infrared "Above Surface" Signal Propagation and Winds; and
Doug Todoroff, Electrooptical and Acoustic "Below Surface" Signal Propagation. The steering committee is
indebted to other attendees and experts who also prepared background materials on issues discussed at the
symposium, including M. Elizabeth Clarke, Juergen Richter, David Lapota, and Michael Latz.
In addition to the support and contribution of the many attendees, experts, and participants listed above, the
steering committee would also like to take this opportunity to acknowledge the efforts of the officers, enlisted
personnel, and civilian staff of the Naval Special Warfare Command, the Naval Pacific Meteorology and Ocean-
ography Facility, the Expeditionary Warfare Training Group Pacific, the Office of Naval Research, the Office of
the Oceanographer of the Navy, the Naval Oceanographic Office, the Warfighting Support Center, and the Naval
Reserve Meteorology and Oceanography Activity (9661. Without the support and assistance from these individu-
als, this symposium and the resulting report would not have been possible.
Six
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Contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
1 INTRODUCTION
Special Operation Forces: An Overview, 4
U.S. Special Operational Forces and USSOCOM, 5
Missions of Special Operations Forces, 6
Naval Special Warfare: "Elite of the Elite", 7
Setting and Structure of the Symposium, 7
Scope of This Report, 8
2 NAVAL SPECIAL WARFARE
Organization and Personnel, 9
Selection and Training, 9
Clandestine Infiltration and Exfiltration, 11
Airborne Infilitration, 11
Seaborne Infilitration and Exfiltration, 13
NAVY SUPPORT OF NSW: AN OVERVIEW
Supporting NSW in a Changing World, 18
ONR Support of Naval Special Warfare, 20
4 OCEANOGRAPHY AND NAVAL SPECIAL WARFARE
Naval Special Warfare Mission Planning, 25
Environmental Factors and Mission Success, 26
x~
3
9
17
25
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. .
xt!
Bioluminescence, 31
Mission Influence, 31
Research Issues, 31
Solutions, 33
Hazardous Marine Organisms, 35
Mission Influence, 35
Research Issues, 37
Solutions, 38
Waves and Surf, 38
Mission Influence, 39
Research Issues, 40
Solutions, 40
Currents and Tides, 42
Mission Influence, 42
Research Issues, 42
Bathymetry, 46
Mission Influence, 50
Research Issues, 50
Solutions, 51
EM-Ducting, 52
Mission Influence, 52
Research Issues, 53
Solutions, 54
Atmospheric Visibility, 54
Mission Influence, 55
Research Issues, 55
Solutions, 55
Underwater Acoustics, 56
Mission Influence, 56
Research Issues, 57
Solutions, 57
Underwater Optics, 58
Mission Influence, 58
Research Issues, 59
Solutions, 60
Water Temperature, 60
Mission Influence, 60
Research Issues, 60
SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION
Important Challenges, 65
6 REFERENCES
APPENDIXES
Symposium Program, 75
Participants, 80
Acronyms and Units, 83
Office of Naval Research Program Contact Information, 86
CONTENTS
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