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Nutrient Requirements of Swine
Tenth Revised Edition, 1998
Subcommittee on Swine Nutrition
Committee on Animal Nutrition
Board on Agriculture
National Research Council
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NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
2101 Constitution Avenue, NW Washington, D.C. 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance.
This study was supported by the Agricultural Research Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, under Agreement No. 59-32U4-5-6, and by the Center for Veterinary Medicine, Food and Drug Administration of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, under Cooperative Agreement No. FD-U-000006-10. Additional support was provided by the American Feed Industry Association, and the National Pork Producers Council.
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. William A. Wulf is acting president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce Alberts and Dr. William A. Wulf are chairman and vice-chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Nutrient requirements of swine / Subcommittee on Swine Nutrition, Committee on Animal Nutrition, Board on Agriculture, National Research Council.—10th rev. ed.
p. cm.—(Nutrient requirements of domestic animals)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-309-05993-3 (pbk.)
1. Swine—Nutrition—Requirements. 2. Swine—Feeding and feeds. I. National Research Council (U.S.). Subcommittee on Swine Nutrition II. Series: Nutrient requirements of domestic animals (Unnumbered)
SF396.5 .N87 1988
636.4'0852—ddc21 98-9007
CIP
International Standard Book Number 0-309-05993-3
© 1998 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
No part of this book may be reproduced by any mechanical, photographic, or electronic process, or in the form of a phonographic recording, nor may it be stored in a retrieval system, transmitted, or otherwise copied for public or private use without written permission from the publisher, except for the purposes of official use by the U.S. government.
Additional copies of this report are available from
National Academy Press,
2101 Constitution Avenue, N.W., Lockbox 285, Washington, D.C. 20055; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area); Internet, http://www.nap.edu
Printed in the United States of America.
This report and the computer model are also available on the Internet, http://www.nap.edu/readingroom/enter2.cgi?0309059933.html.
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Subcommittee On Swine Nutrition
GARY L. CROMWELL, Chair,
University of Kentucky
DAVID H. BAKER,
University of Illinois
RICHARD C. EWAN,
Iowa State University
E. T. KORNEGAY,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
AUSTIN J. LEWIS,
University of Nebraska
JAMES E. PETTIGREW,
Pettigrew Consulting International, Louisiana, Missouri
NORMAN C. STEELE,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Beltsville, Maryland
PHILIP A. THACKER,
University of Saskatchewan, Canada
Committee On Animal Nutrition
DONALD C. BEITZ, Chairman,
Iowa State University
GARY L. CROMWELL,
University of Kentucky*
GEORGE C. FAHEY,
University of Illinois***
DELBERT M. GATLIN III,
Texas A&M University
RONALD L. HORST,
U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Ames, Iowa***
TERRY J. KLOPFENSTEIN,
University of Nebraska***
LAURIE M. LAWRENCE,
University of Kentucky*
AUSTIN J. LEWIS,
University of Nebraska
CARL M. PARSONS,
University of Illinois
ALICE N. PELL,
Cornell University***
GARY D. POTTER,
Texas A&M University
JERRY L. SELL,
Iowa State University**
ROBERT P. WILSON,
Mississippi State University**
KARIN M. WITTENBERG,
University of Manitoba, Canada
*
July 1, 1992, through June 30, 1995
**
July 1, 1993, through June 30, 1996
***
July 1, 1994, through June 30, 1997
Staff
CHARLOTTE KIRK BAER, Program Director
MELINDA SIMONS, Project Assistant
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Board On Agriculture
DALE E. BAUMAN, Chair,
Cornell University
JOHN M. ANTLE,
Montana State University
SANDRA S. BATIE,
Michigan State University
MAY R. BERENBAUM,
University of Illinois
LEONARD S. BULL,
North Carolina State University
WILLIAM B. DELAUDER,
Delaware State College
ANTHONY S. EARL,
Quarles & Brady Law Firm, Madison, Wisconsin
ESSEX E. FINNEY, JR.,
U.S. Department of Agriculture (retired), Mitchellville, Maryland
CORNELIA B. FLORA,
Iowa State University
GEORGE R. HALLBERG,
University of Iowa
RICHARD R. HARWOOD,
Michigan State University
T. KENT KIRK,
University of Wisconsin, Madison
HARLEY W. MOON,
Iowa State University
WILLIAM L. OGREN,
University of Illinois
GEORGE E. SEIDEL, JR.,
Colorado State University
JOHN W. SUTTIE,
University of Wisconsin
JAMES J. ZUICHES,
Washington State University
J. PAUL GILMAN, Executive Director
MICHAEL J. PHILLIPS, Director
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Preface
Swine production represents an important segment of the food animal industry in the United States and throughout the world. Pork is an important source of energy, protein, minerals, and vitamins, and is the most widely consumed red meat in the world. Proper formulation of diets is fundamental to the efficient production of swine in systems that address environmental concerns, and this process depends on a knowledge of the nutrient requirements of swine and the nutritional characteristics of nutrient sources. This tenth edition of Nutrient Requirements of Swine contains a reassessment of the nutrient requirements of swine and incorporates new information that was used to establish the requirements.
An abundance of new knowledge in swine nutrition has surfaced since the last edition of Nutrient Requirements of Swine was published in 1988. There is now a greater awareness and understanding of the effects of growth rate, carcass leanness, gender, health, environmental temperature, crowding, and carcass modifiers on the nutrient requirements of growing pigs. The higher nutrient requirements of prolific sows nursing large litters are now better understood. Additionally, new information on the bioavailability of nutrients is now available. A better understanding of the nutrient requirements and nutrient sources allows one to accurately formulate diets to meet the pig's dietary requirements without producing overages of nutrients that are excreted into the environment.
A major change was made in this edition in that the subcommittee provided the biological basis used to establish energy and amino acid requirements in the form of integrated mathematical equations (models). The models were developed by the subcommittee with the goal of keeping them simple, transparent (i.e., inner parts understandable to the user), and firmly anchored to empirical data. The process of model development and validation was an extremely laborious and time consuming task. While these versions of the models are not perfect, the subcommittee believes that they represent a marked improvement over previous systems of establishing requirements and provide the groundwork for development of improved models by future subcommittees.
The model for growing-finishing pigs allows the user to generate tables of nutrient requirements for various body weights of pigs, based on the pig's lean growth rate, gender, and environmental conditions. Similarly, the energy and amino acid requirements of gestating and lactating sows are estimated by models, and the user can generate nutrient requirement tables for sows with different body weights and weight gains during gestation and for various levels of lactational productivity. To accomplish this, a user-friendly computer program containing the models is included in this edition.
Requirements for amino acids in the models were generated on a true ileal digestible basis. The amino acid requirements are provided to the user on a true and apparent digestible basis as well as on a total basis, using corn and soybean meal as the major ingredients. The models also estimate energy requirements for gestating and lactating sows and energy intakes of growing pigs given ad libitum access to feed. Equations to estimate mineral and vitamin requirements at various body weights are also included in the growth model.
Other new information is presented in this tenth edition. Minimizing nutrient excretion is addressed and a discussion of nonnutritive feed additives was expanded. New information on the nutrient composition of an expanded list of feed ingredients and on the bioavailability of amino acids (true and apparent ileal basis), phosphorus, and other nutrients is also included in this edition. Finally, the nutrient requirement tables also provide more information than did those in previous editions.
This three-year study was conducted by the Subcommittee on Swine Nutrition, which was appointed in 1994 under the guidance of the Board on Agriculture's Committee on Animal Nutrition. The subcommittee began its work in November 1994 and the study was completed in December 1997, with the release of the report in April 1998.
GARY L. CROMWELL, CHAIR
SUBCOMMITTEE ON SWINE NUTRITION
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Acknowledgments
The subcommittee would like to acknowledge the many scientists who conducted the research studies from which we were able to draw information to establish nutrient requirements. Appreciation is given to Kevin Halpin, chairman of the Nutrition Council Swine Committee, American Feed Industry Association, who assisted our subcommittee in setting goals and establishing direction for the revised publication, and to the many companies and individuals in the feed industry who provided useful information to the subcommittee. The subcommittee thanks Tim Stahly, Iowa State University, and Allan Schinckel, Purdue University, for insights gained from discussions with them during the initial stages of model development.
The subcommittee wishes to thank Charlotte Kirk Baer, Program Director, Board on Agriculture, for her untiring efforts in seeing this project to completion. Appreciation is also given to staff members Melinda Simons and Juliemarie Goupil for their assistance with the report, and to Mary Poos for her help during the first year of planning. Finally, the work by Ron Haugen, Easy Systems, Inc., in developing the software interface for the model is acknowledged.
The generous support of this study provided by the National Pork Producers Council is gratefully acknowledged. In addition, the subcommittee appreciates the support provided by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Agricultural Research Service, the Center for Veterinary Medicine of the Department of Health and Human Service's Food and Drug Administration, and the American Feed Industry Association.
This report has been reviewed by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council's (NRC) Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the authors and the NRC in making the published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The content of the review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their participation in the review of this report: R. Dean Boyd, Pig Improvement Company, USA; Thomas Crenshaw, University of Wisconsin; C.F.M. deLange, University of Guelph; Darrell Knabe, Texas A&M University; Harley W. Moon, Iowa State University; Robert Myer, University of Florida; Carl Parsons, University of Illinois; Tim Stahly, Iowa State University; Michael Tokach, Kansas State University; and Gawain Willis, Purina Mills, Inc. While the individuals listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, responsibility for the final content of this report rests solely with the authoring committee and the NRC.
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Contents
Preface
vii
Acknowledgments
ix
Overview
1
1
Energy
3
Classification of Energy
3
Gross Energy
3
Digestible Energy
3
Metabolizable Energy
4
Net Energy
4
Heat Production
5
Temperature
5
Activity
5
Energy Requirements
5
Maintenance
5
Growth
6
Pregnancy
6
Lactation
7
Developing Boars and Gilts
7
Sexually Active Boars
8
Energy Sources
8
Sugars and Starch
8
Nonstarch Polysaccharides
8
Lipids
9
Voluntary Feed Intake
10
Suckling Pigs
10
Weanling Pigs
10
Growing-Finishing Pigs
10
Sows
11
References
11
2
Proteins and Amino Acids
16
Essential and Nonessential Amino Acids
16
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Amino Acids in Diets
17
Ratios Among Amino Acids (Ideal Protein)
17
Bioavailability of Amino Acids
18
Amino Acid Isomers
19
Amino Acid Deficiencies and Excesses
19
Amino Acid Requirements
19
Starting Pigs
19
Growing-Finishing Pigs
24
Sows
25
Boars
25
References
26
3
Models for Estimating Energy and Amino Acid Requirements
31
Overview of the Models
31
Growing-Finishing Pigs
32
Requirement for Lysine
32
Requirements for Other Amino Acids
35
Expression of Amino Acid Requirements
35
Gestating Sows
36
Composition of Weight Gain
37
Requirement for Energy
37
Requirement for Lysine
38
Requirements for Other Amino Acids
38
Expression of Amino Acid Requirements
38
Lactating Sows
38
Requirement for Energy
39
Requirement for Lysine
39
Requirements for Other Amino Acids
40
Expression of Amino Acid Requirements
40
Weanling Pigs
40
Mineral and Vitamin Requirements
41
Evaluation of the Models
42
Growth Model
42
Gestation Model
44
Lactation Model
44
References
44
4
Minerals
47
Macro Minerals
47
Calcium and Phosphorus
47
Sodium and Chlorine
49
Magnesium
50
Potassium
51
Sulfur
51
Micro/Trace Minerals
51
Chromium
51
Cobalt
52
Copper
52
Iodine
53
Iron
54
Manganese
55
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Selenium
55
Zinc
56
References
57
5
Vitamins
71
Fat-Soluble Vitamins
71
Vitamin A
71
Vitamin D
73
Vitamin E
73
Vitamin K
74
Water-Soluble Vitamins
75
Biotin
75
Choline
76
Folacin
77
Niacin
78
Pantothenic Acid
78
Riboflavin
79
Thiamin
79
Vitamin B6 (The Pyridoxines)
80
Vitamin B12
80
Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)
81
References
82
6
Water
90
Functions of Water
90
Water Turnover
90
Water Requirements
91
Suckling Pigs
91
Weanling Pigs
91
Growing-Finishing Pigs
92
Gestating Sows
93
Lactating Sows
93
Boars
93
Water Quality
93
References
95
7
Nonnutritive Feed Additives
97
Additives
97
Antimicrobial Agents
97
Anthelmintics
98
Microbial Supplements
98
Oligosaccharides
98
Enzymes
98
Acidifiers
98
Flavors
99
Odor Control Agents
99
Antioxidants
99
Pellet Binders
99
Flow Agents
99
Mineral Supplements
99
Carcass Modifiers
99
Safety Concerns
99
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Regulations
100
References
100
8
Minimizing Nutrient Excretion
103
References
105
9
Diet Formulation
107
Formulating a Corn-Soybean Meal Diet
107
Formulation
107
10
Nutrient Requirement Tables
110
11
Composition of Feed Ingredients
124
References,
142
Appendixes
1
Equations Used to Model the Biological Basis for Predicting Nutrient Requirements
143
2
Equations for Determining Lean Growth Rate of Pigs
148
3
Method to Create a Cubic Regression Equation
150
4
A User's Guide for Model Application
153
5
Help Screens
171
Authors
179
Index
180
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Tables and Figures
Tables
2-1
Ideal Ratios of Amino Acids to Lysine for Maintenance, Protein Accretion, Milk Synthesis, and Body Tissue,
18
2-2
Research Findings on Amino Acid Requirements of Growing Swine Since 1985,
20
2-3
Lysine Requirements of Gestating and Lactating Sows,
25
3-1
Equations for Converting Percentages of Amino Acids from a True Ileal Digestible Basis to an Apparent Ileal Digestible Basis, from an Apparent Ileal Digestible Basis to a True Ileal Digestible Basis, and from a True or Apparent Ileal Digestible Basis to a Total Basis in a Corn-Soybean Meal Diet,
36
3-2
Coefficients Used in the Growth Model to Predict Mineral and Vitamin Requirements (percentage or amount/kg of diet) for Pigs of Various Body Weights,
43
3-3
Evaluation of Data of the Growth Model,
43
3-4
Evaluation of Data of the Lactation Model,
44
6-1
Evaluation of Water Quality for Pigs Based on Total Dissolved Solids,
94
6-2
Water Quality Guidelines for Livestock,
95
9-1
Nutrients in Corn and Corn + Soybean Meal (Dehulled) Compared with the Nutrient Requirements of a 40-kg Growing Pig of High-Medium Lean Growth Rate (325 g of carcass fat-free lean/day),
108
9-2
Fortified Swine Diet,
109
10-1
Dietary Amino Acid Requirements of Growing Pigs Allowed Feed Ad Libitum (90 percent dry matter),
111
10-2
Daily Amino Acid Requirements of Growing Pigs Allowed Feed Ad Libitum (90 percent dry matter),
112
10-3
Dietary Amino Acid Requirements of Barrows and Gilts of Different Lean Growth Rates and Allowed Feed Ad Libitum (90 percent dry matter),
113
10-4
Daily Amino Acid Requirements of Barrows and Gilts of Different Lean Growth Rates and Allowed Feed Ad Libitum (90 percent dry matter),
114
10-5
Dietary Mineral, Vitamin, and Fatty Acid Requirements of Growing Pigs Allowed Feed Ad Libitum (90 percent dry matter),
115
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10-6
Daily Mineral, Vitamin, and Fatty Acid Requirements of Growing Pigs Allowed Feed Ad Libitum (90 percent dry matter),
116
10-7
Dietary Amino Acid Requirements of Gestating Sows (90 percent dry matter),
117
10-8
Daily Amino Acid Requirements of Gestating Sows (90 percent dry matter),
118
10-9
Dietary Amino Acid Requirements of Lactating Sows (90 percent dry matter),
119
10-10
Daily Amino Acid Requirements of Lactating Sows (90 percent dry matter),
120
10-11
Dietary Mineral, Vitamin, and Fatty Acid Requirements of Gestating and Lactating Sows (90 percent dry matter),
121
10-12
Daily Mineral, Vitamin, and Fatty Acid Requirements of Gestating and Lactating Sows (90 percent dry matter),
122
10-13
Dietary and Daily Amino Acid, Mineral, Vitamin, and Fatty Acid Requirements of Sexually Active Boars (90 percent dry matter),
123
11-1
Chemical Composition of Some Feed Ingredients Commonly Used for Swine (data on as-fed basis),
126
11-2
Mineral Composition of Some Feed Ingredients Commonly Used for Swine (data on as-fed basis),
128
11-3
Vitamin Composition of Some Feed Ingredients Commonly Used for Swine (data on as-fed basis),
130
11-4
Amino Acid Composition of Some Feed Ingredients Commonly Used for Swine (data on as-fed basis),
132
11-5
Apparent Ileal Digestibilities of Amino Acids in Some Feed Ingredients Commonly Used for Swine,
134
11-6
True Ileal Digestibility of Amino Acids in Some Feed Ingredients Commonly Used for Swine,
136
11-7
Coefficients for Estimation of Amino Acids from Crude Protein Content of Feed Ingredients,
138
11-8
Mineral Concentrations in Macro Mineral Sources (data on as-fed basis),
139
11-9
Inorganic Sources and Estimated Bioavailabilities of Trace Minerals,
140
11-10
Characteristics and Energy Values of Various Sources of Fats and Oils (data on as-fed basis),
141
11-11
Chemical Composition of Some Purified Feed Ingredients Commonly Used for Swine Research (data on as-fed basis),
141
Figures
1-1
Digestible energy intake of growing-finishing pigs as an asymptotic function of body weight. Based on research conducted before 1983 and involving 8,072 observations of 1,390 pens of pigs fed nutritionally adequate corn-soybean meal diets (National Research Council, 1987),
11
2-1
Lysine requirements of starting, growing, and finishing pigs in research published since 1985. Each block represents an estimated requirement (total lysine basis) plotted against the mean body weight of the pigs in the experiment (final body weight minus initial body weight divided by 2). The line represents an estimate of the lysine requirement (total lysine basis),
19
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3-1
Potential whole body protein accretion rate of pigs of high-medium lean growth rate with a carcass fat-free lean gain averaging 325 g/day from 20 to 120 kg body weight (default equation of the model). The lean growth rate of 325 g/day is converted to a mean whole body protein accretion rate of 127.5 g/day (325/2.55 = 127.5),
32
3-2
Potential whole body protein accretion rates of pigs of medium, high-medium, and high lean growth rates with carcass fat-free lean gains averaging 300, 325, and 350 g/day from 20 to 120 kg body weight (default equation of the model),
33
3-3
Estimated daily digestible energy (DE) intakes of barrows, gilts, and a 1:1 ratio of barrows to gilts consuming feed on an ad libitum basis from 20 to 120 kg body weight (default equation of the model),
33
3-4
Relationship of whole body protein gain and digestible energy intake in pigs from 5 to 150 kg body weight,
34
3-5
Relationship of daily whole body protein deposition and daily intake of true ileal digestible lysine above maintenance. Based on data from 18 experiments and adapted from a summary by Kerr (1993),
34
3-6
Daily lysine requirement (true ileal digestible basis) of pigs with a mean lean growth rate (carcass fat-free basis) of 325 g/day from 20 to 120 kg body weight as estimated by the model using default equations,
35
3-7
Dietary lysine requirement (%, true ileal digestible basis) of pigs with a mean lean growth rate (carcass fat-free basis) of 325 g/day from 20 to 120 kg body weight as estimated by the model using default equations,
36
3-8
Dietary lysine requirements (%) of pigs of medium, high-medium, and high lean growth rates with carcass fat-free lean gains averaging 300, 325, and 350 g/day from 20 to 120 kg body weight as estimated by the model using default equations. The requirements are for total lysine, assuming a corn-soybean meal mixture,
37
3-9
Relation of litter growth rate to dietary apparent ileal digestible lysine intake by lactating sows,
40
3-10
Dietary lysine requirement (%) of pigs from 3 to 20 kg body weight using the default equation of the model (total basis, assuming a corn-soybean meal diet),
41
3-11
Estimated daily feed intake of pigs from 3 to 20 kg and from 20 to 120 kg body weight based on the default equations for digestible energy intake in the model divided by the digestible energy concentration of the diet (3,400 kcal/kg),
41
3-12
Estimated dietary calcium requirement (%) of pigs from 3 to 120 kg body weight using the generalized exponential equation in the model,
42
3-13
Estimated dietary riboflavin requirement (mg/kg) of pigs from 3 to 120 kg body weight using the generalized exponential equation in the model,
42
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