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50 Years of Ocean Discovery: National Science Foundation 1950—2000
50 Years of Ocean Discovery
National Science Foundation 1950—2000
Ocean Studies Board
National Research Council
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C.
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50 Years of Ocean Discovery: National Science Foundation 1950—2000
NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
2101 Constitution Ave., N.W. Washington, DC 20418
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competencies and with regard for appropriate balance.
This report was supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation. The views expressed herein are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the sponsor.
Library of Congress Catalog Number 99-67879
International Standard Book Number 0-309-06398-1
Additional copies of this report are available from:
National Academy Press
2101 Constitution Avenue, NW Box 285 Washington, D.C. 20055 800-624-6242 202-334-3313 (in the Washington Metropolitan area) http://www.nap.edu
Copyright 2000 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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50 Years of Ocean Discovery: National Science Foundation 1950—2000
Preface
Oceanography is a relatively young branch of science. The Challenger Expedition in 1872-1876 began the exploration of the deep sea but it was during World War II that the significance of this knowledge became of national importance. The U.S. Office of Naval Research, formed soon after the war, sponsored basic research as well as work relevant to the Navy. The National Science Foundation (NSF), created in 1950, gradually augmented and diversified funding in oceanography until, now, NSF is the major federal supporter of marine science.
During the first few decades after WWII there was a tremendous efflorescence in our understanding of fundamental processes in the sea; in ocean circulation, plate tectonics, and the biochemical basis for the productivity of marine life. Oceanography expanded rapidly and then, of necessity, grew more slowly until it is now a mature discipline. So this is a very suitable point to look back at our achievements and the major role of NSF, as well as looking to the future of this field.
The United Nations declared 1998 the International Year of the Ocean and NSF, along with other federal agencies, celebrated the U.S. commitment to the oceans. As part of these activities and to commemorate, ahead of time, the NSF Fiftieth Anniversary, NSF's Division of Ocean Sciences approached the National Research Council's Ocean Studies Board (OSB) to plan and execute a symposium on Fifty Years of Ocean Discovery. The OSB formed a planning committee composed of scientists and managers who have observed NSF's role in U.S. ocean sciences from outside and inside NSF. The following members of the planning committee did a great service to the oceanography community in planning and participating in this symposium: Feenan Jennings (National Science Foundation and Texas A&M University, retired), John Knauss (University of Rhode Island), Marcia McNutt (Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute), Walter Munk (Scripps Institution of Oceanography), Andrew Solow (Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution), Sandra Toye (National Science Foundation, retired), Karl Turekian (Yale University), and Robert Wall (National Science Foundation and University of Maine, retired). The planning committee put together a two-and-one-half-day symposium to highlight the achievements of ocean sciences and the individuals who made the advances over the past 50 years. We emphasized the development of the institutional structures within NSF required to work successfully with the expanding ocean science community. We ensured discussion of the major issues that emerged in recent decades; especially the balance of large and small science. We wanted a glimpse into the future of ocean sciences through the ideas of the next generation.
These topics, the speakers, and a highly participatory audience of almost 400 made the symposium an exciting and enjoyable event. A poster session highlighted the history of individual institutions and some of the major ocean science programs. An exhibit of photos of marine organisms provided a backdrop for a reception at the historic National Academy of Sciences building. NSF sponsored participation in the symposium by ocean science students nominated by their institutions. There was a genuine feeling of celebration among several generations of ocean scientists coming together to discuss the past and future of our field.
This volume contains the presentations from the symposium speakers. Nearly all of them were directly involved in the events they discuss and this gives an immediacy to their stories. The appendices provide other information that we hope will serve those who delve into this period of the history of our science and NSF's role in it. We are grateful to Dr. Gary Weir and Dr. David van Keuren for checking the historical accuracy of several of the historical papers from the first day of the symposium. Videotapes of the symposium are also available from the National Science Foundation and the Ocean Studies Board. On behalf of the planning committee, I wish to express our appreciation for NSF's sponsorship of this activity, and thank the OSB staff, especially Ed Urban and Ann Carlisle, for all their work. Above all we are grateful to the many individuals who took such a full part in this event and made it a very memorable occasion.
JOHN STEELE
CHAIR, PLANNING COMMITTEE
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50 Years of Ocean Discovery: National Science Foundation 1950—2000
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50 Years of Ocean Discovery: National Science Foundation 1950—2000
Contents
KEYNOTE LECTURE
The Emergence of the National Science Foundation as a Supporter of Ocean Sciences in the United States
John A. Knauss
3
LANDMARK ACHIEVEMENTS OF OCEAN SCIENCES
Achievements in Biological Oceanography
Richard T. Barber and Anna K. Hilting
11
Achievements in Chemical Oceanography
John W. Farrington
22
Achievements in Physical Oceanography
Walter Munk
44
Achievements in Marine Geology and Geophysics
Marcia K. McNutt
51
Deep Submergence: The Beginnings of Alvin as a Tool of Basic Research
Sandra Toye
65
The History of Woods Hole's Deep Submergence Program
Robert D. Ballard
67
CREATING INSTITUTIONS TO MAKE SCIENTIFIC DISCOVERIES POSSIBLE
A Chronology of the Early Development of Ocean Sciences at NSF
Michael R. Reeve
87
Ocean Sciences at the National Science Foundation: Early Evolution
Mary Johrde
93
Ocean Sciences at the National Science Foundation: An Administrative History
Sandra Toye
96
Two Years of Turbulence Leading to a Quarter Century of Cooperation: The Birth of UNOLS
John V. Byrne and Robertson P. Dinsmore
107
Scientific Ocean Drilling, from AMSOC to COMPOST
Edward L. Winterer
117
Technology Development for Ocean Sciences at NSF
H. Lawrence Clark
128
LARGE AND SMALL SCIENCE PROGRAMS: A DELICATE BALANCE
The Great Importance of "Small" Science Programs
G. Michael Purdy
137
The Role of NSF in "Big" Ocean Science: 1950 to 1980
Feenan D. Jennings
141
Major Physical Oceanography Programs at NSF: IDOE Through Global Change
Richard B. Lambert, Jr.
149
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50 Years of Ocean Discovery: National Science Foundation 1950—2000
Major International Programs in Ocean Sciences: Ocean Chemistry
Peter G. Brewer
152
OCEAN SCIENCES TODAY AND TOMORROW
Futures Workshops
The Future of Physical Oceanography
William R. Young
165
The Future of Ocean Chemistry in the United States
FOCUS Steering Committee
169
The Future of Marine Geology and Geophysics: A Summary
Marcia K. McNutt
172
Out Far and In Deep: Shifting Perspectives in Ocean Ecology
Peter A. Jumars
184
Global Ocean Science: Toward an Integrated Approach
Committee on Major U.S. Oceanographic Research Programs
192
Education in Oceanography: History, Purpose, and Prognosis
Arthur R. M. Nowell
195
Evolving Institutional Arrangements for U.S. Ocean Sciences
William J. Merrell, Mary Hope Katsouros, and Glenn P. Boledovich
201
NSF's Commitment to the Deep
Rita Colwell
207
Fifty Years of Ocean Discovery
Paul G. Gaffney II
210
Argo to ARGO
D. James Baker
212
The Importance of Ocean Sciences to Society
James D. Watkins
214
APPENDICES
A
Symposium Program
219
B
Symposium Participants
223
C
Poster Session
233
D
NSF Division of Ocean Sciences: Senior Science Staff, Rotators, IPAs, and Visiting Scientists
235
E
Support of Ocean Sciences at NSF from 1966 to 1999
247
F
Organizational Charts
250
G
NRC Project Oversight
258
H
Acronyms
259
INDEX
263
