direction, and persistence in learning situations; (2) the ability to cooperate, demonstrate caring, and resolve conflict with peers; and (3) the capacity to experience the enhanced motivation associated with feeling competent and loved. Such strategies and their widespread diffusion into the early childhood field must encompass young children both with and without special needs. Successful action on this recommendation will require the long-term, collaborative investment of government, professional organizations, private philanthropy, and voluntary associations.

Recommendation 2 — School readiness initiatives should be judged not only on the basis of their effectiveness in improving the performance of the children whom they reach, but also on the extent to which they make progress in reducing the significant disparities that are observed at school entry in the skills of young children with differing backgrounds.

Recommendation 3 — Substantial new investments should be made to address the nation 's seriously inadequate capacity for addressing young children's mental health needs. Expanded opportunities for professional training, as recently called for by the Surgeon General, and incentives for individuals with pertinent expertise to work in settings with young children are essential first steps toward more effective screening, early detection, treatment, and ultimate prevention of serious childhood mental health problems.

The scientific evidence—ranging from behavioral genetics and neuroscience to policy analysis and intervention research—on the significant developmental impacts of early experiences, caregiving relationships, and environmental threats is incontrovertible. Virtually every aspect of early human development, from the brain's evolving circuitry to the child's capacity for empathy, is affected by the environments and experiences that are encountered in a cumulative fashion, beginning early in the prenatal period and extending throughout the early childhood years. The science of early development is also clear about the specific importance of parenting and of regular caregiving relationships more generally. The question today is not whether early experience matters, but rather how early experiences shape individual development and contribute to children's continued movement along positive pathways. Within this context, the committee's synthesis of the pertinent scientific literature has led to the following conclusions:

• The long-standing debate about the importance of nature versus nurture, considered as independent influences, is overly simplistic and sci-

Front Matter (R1-R20)

Executive Summary (1-16)

I. Setting the Stage (17-38)

Rethinking Nature and Nurture (39-56)

The Challenge of Studying Culture (57-69)

Making Causal Connections (70-88)

II. The Nature and Tasks of Early Development (89-92)

Acquiring Self-Regulation (93-123)

Communicating and Learning (124-162)

Making Friends and Getting Along with Peers (163-181)

The Developing Brain (182-218)

III. The Context for Early Development (219-224)

Nurturing Relationships (225-266)

Family Resources (267-296)

Growing Up in Child Care (297-327)

Neighborhood and Community (328-336)

Promoting Healthy Development Through Intervention (337-380)

IV. Knowledge into Action (381-416)

References (417-534)

Appendix A: Related Reports from the National Academies (535-544)

Appendix B: Defining and Estimating Causal Effects (545-548)

Appendix C: Technologies for Studying the Developing Human Brain (549-552)

Appendix D: Biographical Sketches (553-560)

Index (561-588)