variety of models stemming from laboratory-based research on reading. Many methods and paradigms were used: developmental studies, information processing studies focusing on connectionistic models of the reading process, eye movement studies, psychometric studies oriented to measurement, and observational studies of teachers in classrooms—a broad approach. Genetic studies (Olson, Forsberg, Gayan and DeFries, 1999; Pennington, 1999; Olson, 1999; Grigorenko, 1999) showed that reading skills were heritable, but that heritability only accounted for 50 percent of the variability in reading skills: the remainder reflects environmental factors, including instruction. Functional brain imaging studies—possible only over the past few years—have identified neural networks that support phonological processing and word recognition. These findings have been replicated in several laboratories using different neuroimaging methods and reflect more than 20 years of research to identify reliable neural correlates of reading disability (Eden and Zeffiro, 1998).

Current and future work in reading skill development is sure to build on and refine this base. Indeed, under the leadership of several federal agencies—NICHD, Department of Education, and National Science Foundation (NSF)—instruction research has now come to the forefront of how to “scale up” education research for reading (as well as mathematics and science) for pre-kindergarten through high school (preK-12). This intervention and implementation research itself has a long history and is closely linked with other lines of inquiry. The research takes place in schools, which need to be seen as complex social organizations embedded in a larger context of communities, universities, and government. However, the origins are still in basic research, still connected with the “big idea” of the 1960s and the accumulation of knowledge since then.

This line of research evolved over 30 years, and accelerated, albeit along a jagged and contested course, when significant federal leadership and funding became available. The National Research Council (1998) and the National Reading Panel (2000), as well as Adams (1990) have summarized this body of research.

Perhaps the most contentious area in current education research is the role of schools and resources in education outcomes. For much of the