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OCR for page R1
NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS
OF DOGS AND CATS
Ad Hoc Committee on Dog and Cat Nutrition
Committee on Animal Nutrition
Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources
Division on Earth and Life Studies
National Research Council
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS · 500 Fifth Street, N.W. · Washington, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research
Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of
Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for
their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This study was supported by the National Institutes of Health under Agreement No. IR24RR142238-01, the Food and
Drug Administration under Agreement No. FD-R001887-01, and the Pet Food Institute. Any opinions, findings, con-
clusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the
views of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
National Research Council (U.S.). Ad Hoc Committee on Dog and Cat Nutrition.
Nutrient requirements of dogs and cats / Ad Hoc Committee on Dog and Cat Nutrition,
Committee on Animal Nutrition, Board on Agriculture and Natural Resources, Division on
Earth and Life Studies, National Research Council.--[Rev. ed.].
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 0-309-08628-0 (hardcover)--ISBN 0-309-50733-2 (pdf) 1. Dogs--Nutrition. 2. Cats--Nutrition.
3. Dogs--Food. 4. Cats--Food. I. Title.
SF427.4N38 2006
636.7'0852--dc22
2005037411
Additional copies of this report are available from the National Academies Press, 500 Fifth Street, N.W., Lockbox 285,
Washington, DC 20055; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area); Internet,
http://www.nap.edu.
Copyright 2006 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
OCR for page R3
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www.national-academies.org
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AD HOC COMMITTEE ON DOG AND CAT NUTRITION
DONALD C. BEITZ, Chair, Iowa State University, Ames
JOHN E. BAUER, Texas A & M University, College Station
KEITH C. BEHNKE, Kansas State University, Manhattan
DAVID A. DZANIS, Dzanis Consulting & Collaborations, Santa Clarita, California
GEORGE C. FAHEY, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
RICHARD C. HILL, University of Florida, Gainesville
FRANCIS A. KALLFELZ, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
ELLEN KIENZLE, Ludwig Maximilians University, Munich, Germany
JAMES G. MORRIS, University of California, Davis
QUINTON R. ROGERS, University of California, Davis
National Research Council Staff
JAMIE S. JONKER, Study Director
COMMITTEE ON ANIMAL NUTRITION
GARY L. CROMWELL, Chair, University of Kentucky, Lexington
C. ROSELINA ANGEL, University of Maryland, College Park
JESSE P. GOFF, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Ames, Iowa
RONALD W. HARDY, University of Idaho, Hagerman
KRISTEN A. JOHNSON, Washington State University, Pullman
BRIAN W. MCBRIDE, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
KEITH E. RINEHART, Perdue Farms, Inc., Salisbury, Maryland
L. LEE SOUTHERN, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge
DONALD R. TOPLIFF, West Texas A&M University, Canyon
National Research Council Staff
CHARLOTTE KIRK BAER, Director
JAMIE S. JONKER, Program Officer
STEPHANIE PADGHAM, Project Assistant
JOE ESPARZA, Project Assistant
MARINA PEUNOVA-CONNOR, Project Assistant
v
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BOARD ON AGRICULTURE AND NATURAL RESOURCES
MAY BERENBAUM, Chair, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
SANDRA BARTHOLMEY, University of Illinois, Chicago
ROGER N. BEACHY, Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri
H.H. CHENG, University of Minnesota, St. Paul
W.R. GOMES, University of California, Oakland
ARTURO GOMEZ-POMPA, University of California, Riverside
PERRY R. HAGENSTEIN, Institute for Forest Analysis, Planning, and Policy, Wayland,
Massachusetts
JEAN HALLORAN, Consumer Policy Institute/Consumers Union, Yonkers, New York
HANS R. HERREN, Millennium Institute, Arlington, Virginia
DANIEL P. LOUCKS, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
WHITNEY MACMILLAN (Emeritus), Cargill, Incorporated, Minneapolis, Minnesota
BRIAN W. MCBRIDE, University of Guelph, Ontario, Canada
TERRY MEDLEY, E.I. duPont de Nemours and Company, Wilmington, Delaware
OLE NIELSEN (Emeritus), Ontario Veterinary College, Guelph, Canada
ROBERT PAARLBERG, Wellesley College, Watertown, Massachusetts
ALICE N. PELL, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York
BOBBY PHILLS, Florida A&M University, Tallahassee
SONYA SALAMON, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign
PEDRO A. SANCHEZ, The Earth Institute at Columbia University, Palisades, New York
B.L. TURNER II, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts
JAW-KAI WANG, University of Hawaii, Manoa
TILAHUN D. YILMA, University of California, Davis
National Research Council Staff
CHARLOTTE KIRK BAER, Director (until October 2004)
ROBIN SCHOEN, Director (from November 2004)
KAREN IMHOF, Administrative Assistant
AUSTIN LEWIS, Program Officer
PEGGY TSAI, Research Associate
vi
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Preface
In 2000, the National Research Council Committee on of Nutrient Requirements of Dogs (1985) and Nutrient
Animal Nutrition convened the ad hoc Committee on Requirements of Cats (1986). As the committee delved into
Nutrient Requirements of Dogs and Cats to revise the 1985 this task, it became apparent that we needed to examine ear-
and 1986 publications on Nutrient Requirements of Dogs lier research as well to formalize the boundaries of knowl-
and Nutrient Requirement of Cats, respectively. The task edge for each topic explored in this report. In some in-
presented to the committee was as follows: stances--for example, digestive physiology and physical
activity--the chapters are essentially new additions requir-
An ad hoc committee of the Committee on Animal Nutrition ing a thorough review of literature through many decades.
will revise the 1985 and 1986 publications on Nutrient The committee was also cognizant of the various audi-
Requirements of Dogs and Nutrient Requirements of Cats. ences for this report. The report will be used by profession-
These two publications, originally published as two separate als in industry and academia for formulating diets and iden-
documents, will be revised into a single report. The new re-
tifying new topics for research. Government officials may
port will provide updated estimates of requirements for all
use the report as guidance for regulations for pet food label-
nutrients and will contain discussions of nutrient metabo-
ing. Students and teachers at universities will use the report
lism, toxicity, deficiency, and nutritionally related disease in
both dogs and cats. Information on impacts of physiologic as a textbook for dog and cat nutrition. Finally, pet owners
status, temperature, breed, age, and environment on nutrient will use the report in evaluating feeding decisions for their
requirements will also be included. The revised report will pets. With these varied audiences, the committee chose to
address unique biological characteristics affecting nutrient err on the side of caution and include adequate detail from
digestion and utilization. General considerations regarding the literature cited to provide a clear road map for how the
feed ingredients, diet formulation, and feed processing and recommendations were derived.
manufacturing will be presented. Principles of feeding pet The reader should note that this published report reflects
and laboratory animals will be addressed. a number of changes made to correct and update an unedited
prepublication version of the report. Some values, particu-
Throughout the study process, the committee sought larly in Chapter 15, have been revised or deleted based on
input from various sources. We held public meetings in con- the availability of new information or to correct errors in cal-
junction with professional meetings and invited experts to culation. These changes were examined by four independent
speak with us as we worked to complete our task. Over the reviewers and have been approved by the authoring com-
course of 3 years, the committee held six meetings and four mittee and the institution.
public sessions. We acquired data and information from Our assignment was a challenging one. We are pleased to
various public and private organizations. By combining a provide what we believe is a comprehensive document that
thorough literature review with a critical analysis of scien- will improve both the understanding of dog and cat nutrition
tific data and professional experiences, the committee and its practical application in feeding dogs and cats.
developed recommendations that are firmly grounded in
science.
The report is organized into 15 chapters, each addressing
unique aspects of nutrition for dogs and cats or providing DONALD C. BEITZ, Chair
summary tables of requirements and feed ingredients. Each Ad Hoc Committee on Nutrient
chapter examines literature published since the last editions Requirements of Dogs and Cats
vii
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Acknowledgments
This new volume represents the integrated efforts of Southern, Louisiana State University; C. Edward Stevens,
many individuals. The committee thanks everyone who North Carolina State University; Mark Subramanyam,
provided input to this study. We thank all those who pro- Schering-Plough Animal Health Corp.; Duane E. Ullrey,
vided opportunities for our public meetings and who par- Michigan State University; and Thomas R. Zeigler, Zeigler
ticipated in our public sessions. The financial support pro- Bros., Inc.; and Jürgen Zentec, Veterinary University of
vided by the National Institutes of Health, Food and Drug Vienna. Four of the reviewers listed above provided com-
Administration, and the Pet Food Institute is gratefully ments on changes made to the prepublication draft.
acknowledged. Although the reviewers listed above have provided many
During the course of its deliberations, the committee constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked
sought assistance from several people who gave generously to endorse the conclusions or recommendations nor did they
of their time to provide advice and information that was con- see the final draft of the report before its release. The review
sidered in our deliberations. Special thanks are due to Gail of this report was overseen by Joe Knapka, National
Czarnecki-Maulden for extraordinary contribution to the Institutes of Health (retired), appointed by the Division on
initiation of this study. Earth and Life Studies. This individual was responsible for
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individu- making certain that an independent examination of this re-
als chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical ex- port was carried out in accordance with institutional proce-
pertise in accordance with procedures approved by the dures and that all review comments were carefully consid-
National Research Council's Report Review Committee. ered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests
The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.
and critical comments that will assist the institution in mak- Finally, the committee wishes to thank Charlotte Kirk
ing its published report as sound as possible and to ensure Baer, program director, and Jamie Jonker, program officer,
that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, Committee on Animal Nutrition, for their encouragement
evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The re- and cheerful guidance of this project to completion. Their
view comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to exceptional organizational skills contributed in a major way
protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to to the success of the committee. Appreciation also is ex-
thank the following individuals for their review of this re- tended to Stephanie Padgham, Joe Esparza, and Marina
port: Leonard S. Bull, North Carolina State University; Peunova-Connor, project assistants for the study, for their
Wouter Hendriks, Massey University; Kenneth W. Hinch- regular communications and helpful provision of supple-
cliff, Ohio State University; Bruce J. Holub, University of mentary materials. Thanks are also due to Karen Imhof, ad-
Guelph; Daniel T. Hopkins, Purina Mills, Inc. (retired); ministrative assistant, who incorporated edits into the final
Randall A. Johnson, Animal Nutrition Consulting; Neal version of the report, and to Robin Schoen, who took the
Merchen, University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign; committee through its final deliberations.
William Rumpler, U.S. Department of Agriculture; L. Lee
ix
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Contents
OVERVIEW 1
1 COMPARATIVE DIGESTIVE PHYSIOLOGY OF DOGS AND CATS 5
Introduction, 5
Digestive Compartments and Functions, 6
Mouth, 6
Esophagus, 7
Stomach, 7
Gastric Emptying, 8
Small Intestine, Pancreas, and Liver, 8
Large Intestine, 10
Hormonal Aspects of Digestion, 12
Measurement of, and Factors Affecting, Digestibility, 12
References, 17
2 FEEDING BEHAVIOR OF DOGS AND CATS 22
Food Ingestion by Feral Dogs and Cats, 22
Diurnal Rhythms, and Feeding and Drinking Patterns, 22
Role of Imprinting and Social Factors on Feeding Behavior, 23
Dietary Choice, Palatability, Learned Taste Aversions, and Preferences, 24
Control of Food Intake, 25
Feeding Recommendations, 25
References, 26
3 ENERGY 28
Introduction, 28
Energy Evaluation and Requirements: Two Ways of Looking at the Issue, 28
Energy Evaluation, 28
Methods of Estimating Energy in Food, 28
Prediction of Energy Content, 29
Energy Requirements of Dogs, 33
Definitions, 33
Basis for Establishing Energy Requirements, 33
Basal Metabolic Rate, 34
Diet-Induced Thermogenesis and Resting Fed Metabolic Rate, 35
Adult Maintenance, 35
Gestation, 36
xi
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xii CONTENTS
Lactation, 37
Growth, 38
Physical Activity, 39
Energy Requirements of Cats, 39
Basis for Establishing Energy Requirements, 39
Basal Metabolic Rate and Dietary Thermogenesis, 40
Adult Maintenance, 40
Gestation, 42
Lactation, 42
Growth, 45
Energy Deficiency and Excess in Dogs and Cats, 45
Body Condition, 45
References, 45
4 CARBOHYDRATES AND FIBER 49
Definition, Classification, and Measurement, 49
Absorbable Carbohydrates, 49
Digestible Carbohydrates, 49
Fermentable Carbohydrates, 49
Nonfermentable Carbohydrates, 51
Absorbable Carbohydrates (Monosaccharides and Sugar Alcohols), 51
Presence in Foodstuffs, 51
Digestion, Absorption, and Utilization, 51
Factors Affecting Digestibility, Absorption, and Utilization, 51
Nutritive Value, 52
Physicochemical Effects, 52
Physiological Effects, 52
Health-Related Characteristics, 54
Digestible Carbohydrates (Disaccharides, Certain Oligosaccharides, and Nonstructural
Polysaccharides), 54
Presence in Foodstuffs, 54
Digestion, Absorption, and Utilization, 54
Factors Affecting Digestibility, Absorption, and Utilization, 55
Nutritive Value, 57
Physicochemical Effects, 57
Physiological Effects, 58
Health-Related Characteristics, 59
Fermentable Carbohydrates (Lactose, Certain Oligosaccharides, Dietary Fibers, and
Resistant Starch), 60
Presence in Foodstuffs, 60
Digestion, Absorption, and Utilization, 60
Factors Affecting Digestibility, Absorption, and Utilization, 61
Nutritive Value, 62
Physicochemical Effects, 62
Physiological Effects, 63
Health-Related Characteristics, 67
Poorly Fermentable Carbohydrates (Cellulose and Wheat Bran), 69
Presence in Foodstuffs, 69
Digestion, Absorption, and Utilization, 69
Factors Affecting Digestibility, Absorption, and Utilization, 70
Nutritive Value, 70
Physicochemical Effects, 70
Physiological Effects, 70
Health-Related Characteristics, 71
Carbohydrates in Dog and Cat Diet Formulations, 72
References, 74
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CONTENTS xiii
5 FAT AND FATTY ACIDS 81
Importance of Dietary Fats and Fatty Acids, 81
Types and Sources of Dietary Fats and Fatty Acids, 81
Nomenclature, 81
Sources, 82
Trans Fatty Acids, 83
Medium-Chain Triacylglycerols, 83
Conjugated Linoleic Acid, 83
Other Sources, 84
Analytical Procedures, 84
Acid Hydrolysis, 84
Extraction and Saponification of Fatty Acids, 84
Extraction for Total Lipid Analysis, 84
Fat Energy and Nutrient Density, 85
Digestion and Absorption, 85
Preduodenal Lipase, 85
Pancreatic Lipase, 85
Other Lipases, 86
Summary of Triacylglycerol Hydrolysis, 86
Absorption, 86
Digestibility, 87
Biochemical Basis of Fatty Acid Essentiality, 88
Biosynthesis, 88
Desaturation and Elongation, 88
Fatty Acid Ratios, 88
Essential Fatty Acid Utilization for Structure and Function, 90
Comparative Studies, 90
Membrane Composition and Integrity, 90
Lipid-Protein Interactions, 90
Eicosanoid Production, 90
Growth and Development, 91
Canine Studies, 92
Signs of Deficiency or Excess, 92
Skin and Hair Coat, 93
Inflammatory and Immune Cell Structure and Function, 94
Feline Studies, 95
Signs of Deficiency or Excess, 95
Evidence for Limited 6 Desaturase Activities, 96
Dietary LCPUFA and Feline Life Stage, 96
Immune, Inflammatory, and Platelet Cell Functions, 97
Requirements, Recommendations, and Allowances, 97
Essential Fatty Acids for Dogs and Cats, 98
Dogs, 98
Fat Content of Diets: Preferences, Minima, and Maxima, 98
Growth, 99
Adult Maintenance, 100
Gestation and Lactation, 101
Cats, 102
Fat Content of Diets: Preferences, Minima, and Maxima, 102
Growth, 102
Adult Maintenance, 103
Gestation and Lactation, 104
References, 104
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xiv CONTENTS
6 PROTEIN AND AMINO ACIDS 111
Basic Concepts, 111
Introduction, 111
Structure and Function, 111
Essentiality of Amino Acids, 112
Digestibility and Bioavailability of Protein and Amino Acids, 112
Assessing Protein and Amino Acid Status, 114
Requirements, Allowances, and Tolerances of Protein and Amino Acids, 114
Role of Metabolic Adaptation in Protein and Amino Acid Nutrition, 114
Nitrogen (Crude Protein) Minimum Requirements, Recommended Allowances, and
Adequate Intakes, 116
Amino Acid Minimum Requirements, Recommended Allowances, Adequate Intakes,
and Safe Upper Limits, 120
Dispensable Amino Acids, 134
Amino Acid Imbalances and Antagonisms, 137
References, 138
7 MINERALS 145
Introduction, 145
Minerals and Acid-Base Balance, 145
Macrominerals, 147
Calcium, 147
Phosphorus, 152
Magnesium, 156
Sodium, 159
Potassium, 162
Chloride, 166
Trace Minerals, 168
Iron, 168
Copper, 171
Zinc, 173
Manganese, 177
Selenium, 179
Iodine, 181
Other Minerals, 184
Arsenic, 184
Boron, 184
Chromium, 184
Molybdenum, 185
Silicon, 185
Nickel, 185
Vanadium, 186
Miscellaneous Minerals, 186
References, 186
8 VITAMINS 193
Introduction, 193
Vitamin A, 194
Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 195
Biological Function, 196
Dogs, 197
Cats, 199
Vitamin D, 200
Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 200
Biological Function, 201
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CONTENTS xv
Dogs, 201
Cats, 204
Vitamin E, 205
Absorption, 206
Biological Function, 206
Dogs, 208
Cats, 209
Vitamin K, 210
Absorption, Metabolism, and Excretion, 210
Biological Function, 210
Dogs, 211
Cats, 212
Thiamin (Vitamin B1), 212
Absorption, 213
Biological Function, 213
Dogs, 213
Cats, 215
Riboflavin, 216
Absorption, 216
Biological Function, 216
Dogs, 216
Cats, 217
Vitamin B6, 218
Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 218
Biological Function, 218
Dogs, 219
Cats, 220
Niacin, 220
Absorption, 221
Biological Function, 221
Dogs, 222
Cats, 223
Pantothenic Acid, 223
Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 223
Biological Function, 224
Dogs, 224
Cats, 225
Cobalamin (Vitamin B12), 225
Absorption, 225
Biological Function, 226
Dogs, 226
Cats, 227
Folic Acid, 227
Absorption, Transport, and Storage, 228
Biological Function, 228
Dogs, 228
Cats, 229
Biotin, 230
Absorption, 230
Biological Function, 230
Dogs, 231
Cats, 231
Choline, 231
Absorption, 232
Biological Function, 232
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xvi CONTENTS
Dogs, 232
Cats, 233
Ascorbic Acid, 234
Biological Function, 234
Dogs, 235
Cats, 235
Vitamin-Like Substances, 235
Vitamin Losses During Processing and Storage of Dog and Cat Foods, 236
References, 237
9 WATER 246
General Principles, 246
Function, 246
Regulation of Intake by Dogs and Cats, 246
Deficiency in Dogs and Cats, 247
Requirements of Dogs, 247
Requirements for Maintenance, 247
Requirements for Other Life Stages, 248
Requirements for Work and Environmental Stress, 248
Requirements of Cats, 249
Requirements for Maintenance and Other Life Stages, 249
Water and Feline Lower Urinary Tract Health, 249
Recommended Allowances, 249
Toxicity in Dogs and Cats, 250
References, 250
10 SPECIAL CONSIDERATIONS FOR LABORATORY ANIMALS 252
Requirements, 252
Energy, 252
Nutrients Other Than Energy, 252
Food Selection, 252
General, 252
Certified Diets, 254
Purified and Chemically Defined Diets, 254
Foods for Specific Dietary Purposes (e.g., Medical Foods), 254
Feeding Management, 255
Life-Stage Designation of Food, 255
Form of Food, 255
Amount Fed, 255
Frequency of Feeding, 256
Storage of Food, 256
References, 256
11 PHYSICAL ACTIVITY AND ENVIRONMENT 258
Introduction, 258
Calculations and Assumptions, 258
How Much Exercise Do Dogs and Cats Undertake?, 259
Dogs, 259
Cats, 260
Types of Exercise: Sprinting Versus Endurance, 260
Sprint Exercise Over a Distance of Less Than One Kilometer, 260
Endurance Exercise Over Distances Greater Than One Kilometer, 260
Traditional Diets Fed to Racing Dogs, 260
Sled Dogs, 260
Greyhounds, 262
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CONTENTS xvii
Diet and Health During Exercise, 262
Effect of Exercise on Intestinal Function, 262
Exercise and Digestibility, 263
When to Feed Exercising Dogs, 263
Exercise and Body Condition, 265
Effect of Confinement and Training, 266
Energy Requirements, 267
Minimal Metabolism, 267
Anxiety, 267
Circadian Rhythms, 268
Cold-Induced Thermogenesis, 268
Nutrients in a Warm Environment, 272
Effect of Reduced Oxygen at High Altitude, 272
Effect of Exercise on Energy Requirements, 273
Effect of Exercise on Energy Required in the Absence of Exercise, 273
Energy Required for Exercise: Dynamic Exercise (Short Runs) Versus Steady-State
Exercise (Long Runs), 273
Maximal Oxygen Consumption, 279
Intensity of Exercise, 281
Field Metabolic Rate, 281
Nutrient Requirements, 284
How May Nutrient Requirements Change with Exercise or in the Cold?, 284
Sources of Energy: Fat Versus Carbohydrate, 285
Protein and Exercise, 287
Studies That Have Altered Both Fat and Protein in the Diet of Exercising Dogs, 291
Dietary Carbohydrate and Exercise, 292
Importance of Water and Water Requirements at High Ambient Temperatures, 292
Exercised-Induced Hyperthermia and the Importance of Water During
Exercise, 293
Water Requirements at Rest and During Exercise, 294
Sodium, Potassium, and Chloride, 296
Fluids Containing Electrolytes, 298
Calcium, Phosphorus, and Magnesium, 298
Trace Minerals, 299
Vitamins, 300
Other Nutrients, 303
References, 304
12 DIET FORMULATION AND FEED PROCESSING 313
Petfood Processing, 313
General Considerations, 313
Dogs, 313
Cats, 313
Petfood Categories, 313
Dry Petfoods, 313
Semi-moist Petfoods, 314
Soft-Expanded (Soft Dry) Petfoods, 315
Baked Petfoods, 315
Starch-Lipid Complexes, 315
Snacks for Pets, 315
Canned (Wet) Petfoods, 316
Homemade Diets, 317
Diet Formulation, 317
Summary, 317
References, 318
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xviii CONTENTS
13 NUTRIENT COMPOSITION OF INGREDIENTS USED IN DOG AND
CAT FOODS 319
References, 343
14 OTHER FOOD CONSTITUENTS 344
Constituents Intended for Nutritive Value, 344
Introduction, 344
Chondroprotective Agents, 344
Antioxidants, 345
Probiotics (Direct-Fed Microbials) and Enzymes, 347
Herbs and Botanicals, 347
Other, 348
Constituents Intended for Technical or Nonnutritive Effects on Food, 348
Introduction, 348
Preservatives, 348
Flavors and Extracts, 350
Colors, 350
Other Additives, 351
References, 351
15 NUTRIENT REQUIREMENTS AND DIETARY NUTRIENT CONCENTRATIONS 354
Use of Nutrient Requirement Tables, 355
Recommendations Relative to ME Compared with Requirements Relative to
DM, 355
Requirements Relative to ME in the Food Compared with Requirements Relative to
BW, 355
Note on Bioavailability, 356
References, 370
APPENDIXES
A ABOUT THE AUTHORS 371
B ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 374
INDEX 377
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Tables and Figures
TABLES
1-1 Gastrointestinal Hormone Characteristics of Dogs and Cats, 13
3-1 Predictive Equations for Metabolizable Energy in Dog Food, 31
3-2 Predictive Equations for Metabolizable Energy in Cat Food, 31
3-3 Basal Metabolic Rate in Dogs, 34
3-4 Reported Maintenance Energy Requirements of Dogs in Relation to Breed, Age,
Housing, and Activity, 37
3-5 Recommendations for Growth of Large- and Giant-Breed Dogs, 39
3-6 Reported Daily Maintenance Energy Requirements of Cats, 41
3-7 Body Condition Scoring System, 43
4-1 Summary of Physicochemical, Physiological, and Health-Related Effects of Absorbable,
Digestible, Fermentable, and Nonfermentable Carbohydrates in Dog and Cat Nutrition,
53
4-2 Starch Content of Some Starch-Rich Foodstuffs and By-products Used in Dog and Cat
Foods, 54
4-3 Influence of Diet Type on Amylase Activity in Chyme of Adult Dogs, 57
4-4 Average Activity of Disaccharidases in Small Intestinal Mucosa of Cats in Relation to
Age, 57
4-5 Molecular Structure and Chemical Linkages of Oligosaccharides with Bifidogenic
Effects in Dog and Cat Foods, 60
4-6 Characteristics of Selected Fibers and Their Effects on Intestinal Transit Time and Fecal
Characteristics of Dogs and/or Cats, 63
4-7 Characteristics of Selected Fibers and Their Effects on Nutrient Digestibility by Dogs
and/or Cats, 65
4-8 Characteristics of Selected Carbohydrates and Their Effects on Gastrointestinal Health
Characteristics of Dogs and/or Cats, 67
4-9 Safe Upper Limits of Selected Carbohydrates for Adult Dog and Cat Maintenance Diets,
73
5-1 List of Abbreviations of Selected Fatty Acids and Fatty Acid Terminology, 97
6-1 Plasma Amino Acid Concentrations of Kittens, 115
6-2A Plasma Amino Acid Concentrations of Puppies, 115
6-2B Plasma Amino Acid Concentrations from Normal, Small-, and Large-Breed Adult Dogs
Fed a Variety of Commercial Diets Known to Be Adequate for Maintenance, 115
6-3 Endogenous Urinary Nitrogen Excretion of Animals Fed a Protein-Free Diet, 117
7-1 Clinical Signs of Phosphorus Deficiency in Dogs in Relation to Physiological Status and
Dietary Phosphorus Concentration, 153
xix
OCR for page R20
xx TABLES AND FIGURES
8-1 Relative Vitamin E Activity of Various Tocopherols in Preventing Fetal Resorption and
Hemolysis, 207
8-2 Estimated Minimal Requirement of Vitamin E Needed to Compensate for the Elevated
Vitamin Demand Caused by Some Common Unsaturated Fatty Acids, 208
8-3 Recovery of Vitamins and Carotenoids Added to Extruded Petfoods and Percentage Loss
on Storage, 237
11-1 Greyhound Race Distances and Approximate Fastest Times at Tracks in the United
States, 260
11-2 Distances and Reported Times for Some Long-Distance Races, 261
11-3 Analyses of Diets Fed to Working Sled Dogs in the Antarctic, Mid-Twentieth Century,
261
11-4 Effect of Changes in Ambient Temperature on Energy Utilization in Acclimatized and
Unacclimatized Cats, 271
11-5 Rate of Energy Utilization in Greyhounds, 275
11-6 Cost of Standing and Running During Steady-State Exercise on a Treadmill for Dogs and
Cats, 277
11-7 Efficiency of Gaining and Losing Height When Running, 278
11-8 Maximal Oxygen Consumption in Dogs, 280
11-9 Field Metabolic Rate in Dogs, 282
11-10 Recommendations for Metabolizable Energy Requirements of Exercising Dogs, 284
11-11 Adequate Intake of Amino Acids for Greyhounds, 290
11-12 Daily Water Loss from Hydrated and Dehydrated Dogs and Cats as Affected by
Temperature, 293
12-1 Nutrient Content of Dry, Semi-moist, and Canned Dog Foods, 317
13-1 Proximate Analysis of Selected Feed Ingredients, 320
13-2 Carbohydrate and Lignin Concentrations of Some Common Ingredients in Canine and
Feline Foods, 324
13-3 Total Fat Concentration and Fatty Acid Composition of Selected Feed Ingredients, 326
13-4 Fatty Acid Composition of Selected Fats and Oils, 328
13-5 Amino Acid Composition of Selected Feed Ingredients, 330
13-6 Mineral Content of Selected Ingredients, 334
13-7 Vitamin Content of Selected Ingredients, 338
13-8 Composition of Selected Inorganic Macro-mineral Sources Used in Petfood, 342
13-9 Composition of Selected Inorganic Micro-mineral Sources Used in Petfood, 343
15-1 Change in Requirements Relative to ME if Requirements Vary Directly with BW, 356
15-2 Daily Metabolizable Energy Requirements for Growth of Puppies After Weaning, 356
15-3 Nutrient Requirements for Growth of Puppies After Weaning, 357
15-4 Daily Metabolizable Energy Requirements for Adult Dogs at Maintenance, 359
15-5 Nutrient Requirements of Adult Dogs for Maintenance, 359
15-6 Daily Metabolizable Energy Requirements for Bitches in Late Gestation, 361
15-7 Daily Metabolizable Energy Requirements for Lactating Bitches Based on Number of
Puppies and Weeks of Lactation, 361
15-8 Nutrient Requirements of Bitches for Late Gestation and Peak Lactation, 362
15-9 Daily Metabolizable Energy Requirements of Growth in Kittens After Weaning, 364
15-10 Nutrient Requirements for Growth of Kittens After Weaning, 364
15-11 Daily Metabolizable Energy Requirements for Adult Cats at Maintenance, 366
15-12 Nutrient Requirements of Adult Cats for Maintenance, 366
15-13 Daily Metabolizable Energy Requirements for Lactating Queens, 368
15-14 Nutrient Requirements of Queens in Late Gestation and Peak Lactation, 368
OCR for page R21
TABLES AND FIGURES xxi
FIGURES
1-1 Dog gastrointestinal tract, 6
1-2 Cat gastrointestinal tract, 6
3-1 Principles of bioavailability of energy in animals, 29
3-2 Comparison of experimentally determined and predicted ME values in prepared cat food,
32
3-3 Comparison of experimentally determined and predicted ME values in prepared cat food,
32
3-4 Schematic comparison of body weight changes of queen and bitch during gestation and
lactation, 43
5-1 Chemical structure of the n-3 and n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid families, 82
5-2 Predominant pathways of essential fatty acid metabolism in mammals, 89
5-3 Generalized pathways of eicosanoid formation from n-3 and n-6 PUFAs, 91
6-1 Effect of dietary crude protein and ratio of essential amino acid nitrogen to total amino
acid nitrogen (E:T) on weight gain of kittens, 118
11-1 Effect of environmental temperature (°C) on energy requirement, 268
11-2 Changes in oxygen consumption before and after a short bout of submaximal exercise,
274
11-3 Cost of running on a treadmill, 276
OCR for page R22
