Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
Washington, D.C.
www.nap.edu
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NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This project was supported by Contract No. DTFH61-01-C-00036 between the National Academy of Sciences and the Department of Transportation. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or agencies that provided support for this project.
Cover design by Liza R. Hamilton, National Research Council. Front photo by Anthony P. Clevenger, Montana State University. Back photos used with permission from Lance H. Gunderson, Emory University (double yellow line), Emory University Facilities Management (campus), and USGS (southeastern United States).
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
Advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering, and Medicine
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
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The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Wm. A. Wulf are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.
COMMITTEE ON ECOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF ROAD DENSITY
Members
LANCE H. GUNDERSON (Chair),
Emory University, Atlanta, GA
ANTHONY P. CLEVENGER,
Western Transportation Institute, Montana State University, Bozeman
ADRIENNE T. COOPER,
Temple University, Philadelphia, PA
VIRGINIA H. DALE,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN
LEONARD EVANS,
Science Serving Society, Bloomfield Hills, MI
GARY L. EVINK,
Florida Department of Transportation (Retired), Tallahassee
LENORE FAHRIG,
Carleton University, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
KINGSLEY E. HAYNES,
George Mason University, Fairfax, VA
WAYNE W. KOBER,
Transportation and Environmental Consulting, Dillsburg, PA
STEPHEN B. LESTER,
Urban Engineers, Inc., Philadelphia, PA
KENT H. REDFORD,
Wildlife Conservation Society, Bronx, NY
MARGARET N. STRAND,
Venable, LLP, Washington, DC
PAUL WAGNER,
Washington State Department of Transportation, Olympia
J.M. (MAC) YOWELL,
Kentucky Transportation Cabinet (Retired), Frankfort
Staff
SUZANNE VAN DRUNICK, Project Director
DAVID POLICANSKY, Scholar
RUTH CROSSGROVE, Senior Editor
MIRSADA KARALIC-LONCAREVIC, Research Associate
BRYAN P. SHIPLEY, Research Associate
JOHN BROWN, Program Associate
LIZA R. HAMILTON, Senior Program Assistant
ALEXANDRA STUPPLE, Senior Editorial Assistant
SAMMY BARDLEY, Librarian
Sponsor
FEDERAL HIGHWAY ADMINISTRATION
BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY
Members
JONATHAN M. SAMET (Chair),
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
RAMÓN ALVAREZ,
Environmental Defense, Austin, TX
JOHN M. BALBUS,
Environmental Defense, Washington, DC
THOMAS BURKE,
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
DALLAS BURTRAW,
Resources for the Future, Washington, DC
JAMES S. BUS,
Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI
COSTEL D. DENSON,
University of Delaware, Newark
E. DONALD ELLIOTT,
Willkie Farr & Gallagher LLP, Washington, DC
J. PAUL GILMAN,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN
SHERRI W. GOODMAN,
Center for Naval Analyses, Alexandria, VA
JUDITH A. GRAHAM,
American Chemistry Council, Arlington, VA
DANIEL S. GREENBAUM,
Health Effects Institute, Cambridge, MA
WILLIAM P. HORN,
Birch, Horton, Bittner and Cherot, Washington, DC
ROBERT HUGGETT,
Michigan State University (emeritus), East Lansing
JAMES H. JOHNSON JR.,
Howard University, Washington, DC
JUDITH L. MEYER,
University of Georgia, Athens
PATRICK Y. O’BRIEN,
ChevronTexaco Energy Technology Company, Richmond, CA
DOROTHY E. PATTON,
International Life Sciences Institute, Washington, DC
STEWARD T.A. PICKETT,
Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY
DANNY D. REIBLE,
University of Texas, Austin
JOSEPH V. RODRICKS,
ENVIRON International Corporation, Arlington, VA
ARMISTEAD G. RUSSELL,
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta
ROBERT F. SAWYER,
University of California, Berkeley
LISA SPEER,
Natural Resources Defense Council, New York, NY
KIMBERLY M. THOMPSON,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
MONICA G. TURNER,
University of Wisconsin, Madison
MARK J. UTELL,
University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY
CHRIS G. WHIPPLE,
ENVIRON International Corporation, Emeryville, CA
LAUREN ZEISE,
California Environmental Protection Agency, Oakland
Senior Staff
JAMES J. REISA, Director
DAVID J. POLICANSKY, Scholar
RAYMOND A. WASSEL, Senior Program Officer for Environmental Sciences and Engineering
KULBIR BAKSHI, Senior Program Officer for Toxicology
EILEEN N. ABT, Senior Program Officer for Risk Analysis
K. JOHN HOLMES, Senior Program Officer
SUSAN N.J. MARTEL, Senior Program Officer
SUZANNE VAN DRUNICK, Senior Program Officer
ELLEN K. MANTUS, Senior Program Officer
RUTH E. CROSSGROVE, Senior Editor
TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD 2005 EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE1
JOHN R. NJORD (Chair),
Utah Department of Transportation, Salt Lake City
MICHAEL D. MEYER (Vice Chair),
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta
ROBERT E. SKINNER (Executive Director),
Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC
MICHAEL W. BEHRENS,
Texas Department of Transportation, Austin
ALLEN D. BIEHLER,
Pennsylvania Department of Transportation, Harrisburg
LARRY L. BROWN,
Mississippi Department of Transportation, Jackson
DEBORAH H. BUTLER,
Norfolk Southern Corporation and Subsidiaries, Atlanta, GA
ANNE P. CANBY,
Surface Transportation Policy Project, Washington, DC
JOHN L. CRAIG,
Nebraska Department of Roads, Lincoln
DOUGLAS G. DUNCAN,
FedEx Freight, Memphis, TN
NICHOLAS J. GARBER,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville
ANGELA GITTENS,
HNTB Corporation, Miami, FL
GENEVIEVE GIULIANO (Past Chair, 2003),
University of Southern California, Los Angeles
BERNARD S. GROSECLOSE, JR.,
South Carolina State Ports Authority, Charleston
SUSAN HANSON,
Clark University, Worcester, MA
JAMES R. HERTWIG,
CSX Intermodal, Jacksonville, FL
GLORIA J. JEFF,
Michigan Department of Transportation, Lansing
ADIB K. KANAFANI,
University of California, Berkeley
HERBERT S. LEVINSON,
Herbert S. Levinson Transportation Consultant, New Haven, CT
SUE MCNEIL,
University of Delaware, Newark
MICHAEL MORRIS,
North Central Texas Council of Governments, Arlington
CAROL A. MURRAY,
New Hampshire Department of Transportation, Concord
MICHAEL S. TOWNES (Past Chair, 2004),
Hampton Roads Transit, VA
C. MICHAEL WALTON,
University of Texas, Austin
LINDA S. WATSON,
LYNX–Central Florida Regional Transportation Authority, Orlando
MARION C. BLAKEY (ex officio),
Federal Aviation Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC
JOSEPH H. BOARDMAN (ex officio),
Federal Railroad Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC
REBECCA M. BREWSTER (ex officio),
American Transportation Research Institute, Smyrna, GA
GEORGE BUGLIARELLO (ex officio),
Polytechnic University, Brooklyn, NY;
Foreign Secretary,
National Academy of Engineering, Washington, DC
J. RICHARD CAPKA (ex officio),
Federal Highway Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC
THOMAS H. COLLINS (ex officio),
Commandant, U.S. Coast Guard, Washington, DC
JAMES J. EBERHARDT (ex officio),
U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, DC
JACQUELINE GLASSMAN, (ex officio),
National Highway Traffic Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC
EDWARD R. HAMBERGER (ex officio),
Association of American Railroads, Washington, DC
DAVID B. HORNER (ex officio),
Federal Transit Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC
JOHN C. HORSLEY (ex officio),
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC
JOHN E. JAMIAN (ex officio),
Maritime Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC
EDWARD JOHNSON (ex officio),
Applied Science Directorate, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, John C. Stennis Space Center, MS
ASHOK G. KAVEESHWAR (ex officio),
Research and Innovative Technology Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC
BRIGHAM MCCOWN (ex officio),
Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington DC
WILLIAM W. MILLAR (ex officio) (Past Chair, 1992),
American Public Transportation Association, Washington, DC
SUZANNE RUDZINSKI (ex officio),
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC
ANNETTE M. SANDBERG (ex officio),
Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC
JEFFREY N. SHANE (ex officio),
U.S. Department of Transportation, Washington, DC
CARL A. STROCK (ex officio),
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC
OTHER REPORTS OF THE BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY
Superfund and Mining Megasites—Lessons from the Coeur d’Alene River Basin (2005)
Health Implications of Perchlorate Ingestion (2005)
Air Quality Management in the United States (2004)
Endangered and Threatened Species of the Platte River (2004)
Atlantic Salmon in Maine (2004)
Endangered and Threatened Fishes in the Klamath River Basin (2004)
Cumulative Environmental Effects of Alaska North Slope Oil and Gas Development (2003)
Estimating the Public Health Benefits of Proposed Air Pollution Regulations (2002)
Biosolids Applied to Land: Advancing Standards and Practices (2002)
The Airliner Cabin Environment and Health of Passengers and Crew (2002)
Arsenic in Drinking Water: 2001 Update (2001)
Evaluating Vehicle Emissions Inspection and Maintenance Programs (2001)
Compensating for Wetland Losses Under the Clean Water Act (2001)
A Risk-Management Strategy for PCB-Contaminated Sediments (2001)
Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals (4 volumes, 2000-2004)
Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury (2000)
Strengthening Science at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2000)
Scientific Frontiers in Developmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment (2000)
Ecological Indicators for the Nation (2000)
Waste Incineration and Public Health (1999)
Hormonally Active Agents in the Environment (1999)
Research Priorities for Airborne Particulate Matter (4 volumes, 1998-2004)
The National Research Council’s Committee on Toxicology: The First 50 Years (1997)
Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet (1996)
Upstream: Salmon and Society in the Pacific Northwest (1996)
Science and the Endangered Species Act (1995)
Wetlands: Characteristics and Boundaries (1995)
Biologic Markers (5 volumes, 1989-1995)
Review of EPA's Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (3 volumes, 1994-1995)
Science and Judgment in Risk Assessment (1994)
Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children (1993)
Dolphins and the Tuna Industry (1992)
Science and the National Parks (1992)
Human Exposure Assessment for Airborne Pollutants (1991)
Rethinking the Ozone Problem in Urban and Regional Air Pollution (1991)
Decline of the Sea Turtles (1990)
Copies of these reports may be ordered from the National Academies Press
(800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313
OTHER REPORTS OF THE TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD
Predicting Air Quality Effects of Traffic-Flow Improvements: Final Report and User's Guide (2005)
Energy and Environment Concerns 2004 (2004)
Short-Term Monitoring for Compliance with Air Quality Standards (2004)
Travel Matters: Mitigating Climate Change with Sustainable Surface Transportation (2003)
Environmental Law and Transportation (2003)
Sustainability and Environmental Concerns in Transportation 2003 (2003)
Energy, Air Quality, and Fuels 2003 (2003)
Environmental Information Management and Decision Support System—Implementation Handbook (2003)
Strategies for Increasing the Effectiveness of Commuter Benefits (2003)
Guideline for Selecting Compensatory Wetlands Mitigation Options (2003)
Interactions Between Roadways and Wildlife Ecology (2002)
Assessing the Impact of Bridge Deck Runoff Contaminates in Receiving Waters (2002)
Mitigating Transportation’s Ecological Impacts (2002)
Surface Transportation Environmental Research: A Long-Term Strategy (2002)
A Process for Setting, Managing, and Monitoring Environmental Windows for Dredging Projects (2002)
Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement Program: Assessing 10 Years of Experience (2002)
Energy, Air Quality, and Fuels 2002 (2002)
Environmental Research Needs in Transportation: Report of a Conference, Washington, D.C., March 21-23, 2002 (2002)
Sustainability and Environmental Concerns in Transportation 2003 (2002)
Environmental Performance of Tanker Designs in Collision and Grounding: Method for Comparison (2001)
Toward A Sustainable Future: Addressing the Long-Term Effects of Motor Vehicle Transportation on Climate and Ecology (1997)
Expanding Metropolitan Highways: Implications for Air Quality and Energy Use—Special Report 245 (1995)
Copies of these and other TRB reports may be ordered from the Transportation Research Board
(202) 334-3213
TRB Bookstore (www.TRB.org/bookstore)
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We are grateful for the generous support provided by U.S. Department of Transportation and are especially grateful for the outstanding assistance provided by Dr. Paul Garrett. Many people assisted the committee and National Research Council by providing data and reports. We are grateful for the information and support provided by the following:
Marina Alberti, University of Washington
David Andersen, Washington State Office of Community Trade and Economic Development
Fred Bank, Federal Highway Administration
Paul Barten, University of Massachusetts
William I. Boarman, U.S. Geological Survey
Ray Bransfield, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Todd D. Carlson, Washington State Department of Transportation
Laurie W. Carr, TerraSystems Research
Kristan Majors Chilcoat, Emory University
Scott Dawson, California Department of Fish and Game
Robert Fuerstenberg, King County Department of Natural Resources and Parks
Margot J. Griswold, Earthworks Construction & Design
Howard Haemmerle, King County Department of Transportation
Eugene S. Helfman, University of Georgia
Art Homrighausen, LSA Associates, Inc.
Geary Hund, California State Parks
Robert A. James, California Department of Transportation
John Kusler, Association of State Wetland Managers
Gino Lucchetti, King County Department of Natural Resources
Gary McVoy, New York State Department of Transportation
Ivan Miller, Puget Sound Regional Council
William Ruediger, U.S. Forest Service
Mark Shaffer, Doris Duke Foundation
Emily Tibbott, The Nature Conservancy
Benjamin Tuggle, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
Sylvia Vega, California Department of Transportation
Paul A. Waddel, University of Washington
Michael White, Conservation Biology Institute
Acknowledgment of Review Participants
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council’s Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of this report:
Frank W. Davis, University of California, Santa Barbara
Andras Fekete, The RBA Group
Richard T.T. Forman, Harvard University
Kevin E. Heanue, Consultant
Arnold M. Howitt, Harvard University
Herbert S. Levinson, Consultant
Judith L. Meyer, University of Georgia
Helen Mountford, Consultant
G. Scott Rutherford, University of Washington
William H. Schlesinger, Duke University
Kumares C. Sinha, Purdue University
B.L. Turner II, Clark University
Susan L. Ustin, University of California, Davis
Patricia White, Defenders of Wildlife
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was overseen by William L. Chameides, Georgia Institute of Technology; Gordon Orians, University of Washington (Emeritus); and Lester A. Hoel, University of Virginia. Appointed by the National Research Council, they were responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.
Preface
In the past century, dramatic changes have been made in the U.S. road system to accommodate an evolving set of needs, including personal travel, economic development, and military transport. As the struggle to accommodate larger volumes of traffic continues, the road system is increasing in width and, at a slower pace, overall length.
As the road system changes, so does the relationship between roads and the environment. With the increase in roads, more resources are going toward road construction and management. More is also understood about the impact of roads on the environment. To address these matters, a better understanding of road ecology and better methods of integrating that understanding into all aspects of road development are needed.
This report attempts to consolidate understanding in a number of areas—how roads interact with different ecological structures and processes across scales of space and time; how the legal framework for evaluating ecological effects intersects with the scales of ecological features; and how ecological considerations can be integrated better into all phases of road development—from planning to use.
The compilation of current understanding of the effects of roads on ecological processes and structures is a major focus of this report. We found that most of the current knowledge is about aspects of the environment that change over short time periods and small areas and that ecological processes and structures that cover large areas over broad time scales have been largely overlooked.
The current federal legal framework for consideration of ecological impacts of roads has essentially been in place for over three decades.
This framework considers a few critical pieces of ecosystems but could be expanded to include more ecological features. The opportunity exists to evaluate the efficacy of these laws and policies, but the collection of more data and the synthesis of extant information need to be done in ways that have generally not been done.
Integrating ecological considerations into all phases of road development—from planning to construction to vehicle use to ongoing maintenance—is a continuing challenge. Practitioners are moving in that direction and are encouraged to continue in that direction. We suggest that integrative assessments done earlier in the planning process are a key solution to this chronic issue.
These findings would not have been possible without the hard work, collective action, and perseverance of this committee. I would like to thank my colleagues on the committee for their efforts. Some members of the group have hundreds of years of collective experience as practitioners and gladly shared that wisdom; others are among the leading researchers in the field of road ecology. I have been honored to serve alongside such an august group. But even more, it was a pleasure and joy to get to know them and work with them all.
The committee and I gratefully acknowledge and thank the staff of the National Research Council for their support. Suzanne van Drunick served as project director and provided gracious leadership throughout the project. Bryan Shipley provided beneficial research and report preparation. Liza Hamilton provided outstanding venues and programs for the meetings and help in preparing the report. David Policansky provided helpful guidance and counsel. Ruth Crossgrove, Mirsada Karalic-Loncarevic, John Brown, Alexandra Stupple, and Sammy Bardley also helped with various aspects of the project and report preparation. The committee is appreciative of BEST members for their oversight of this study.
The committee benefited immensely from the help and advice of practitioners and scientists who spent their valuable time to give presentations, reports, and advice to the committee during the numerous meetings.
The National Research Council process for producing the report involves extensive reliance on external reviewers. The committee thanks the reviewers of its final report for their thoughtful contributions.
We hope that the conclusions and recommendations of the report provide solid advice to agencies and the road community to better assess
Abbreviations
AASHTO
American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
BMP
best-management practices
CAA
Clean Air Act
Caltrans
California Department of Transportation
CE
categorical exclusion
CEQ
Council on Environmental Quality
CIFOR
Center for International Forestry Research
CMAQ
Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement Program
Corps
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
CSD
context-sensitive design
CSS
context-sensitive solutions
CWA
Clean Water Act
CZMA
Coastal Zone Management Act
DOA
U.S. Department of Agriculture
DOI
U.S. Department of the Interior
DOT
U.S. Department of Transportation
EA
environmental assessment
EA/FONSI
environmental assessment and finding of no significant impact
EIS
environmental impact statement
EO
Executive Order
EPA
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
EPS
environmental policy statement
ESA
Endangered Species Act
ETAP
environmental technical advisory team
FHWA
Federal Highway Administration
FLH
federal lands highway
FPPA
Farmland Protection Policy Act
FTA
Federal Transit Administration
GIS
geographic information system
HEP
habitat evaluation procedure
HGM
hydrogeomorphic method
IRI
international roughness index
ISTEA
Intermodal Surface Transportation Equity Act
LARCH
landscape ecological analysis and rules for the configuration of habitat model
LOS
level of service
LRTP
long-range transportation plan
LWCFA
Land and Water Conservation Fund Act
MBTA
Migratory Bird Treaty Act
MOU
memorandum of understanding
MPO
metropolitan planning organization
NAAQS
National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NAS
National Academy of Sciences
NCHRP
National Cooperative Highway Research Program
NEPA
National Environmental Policy Act
NGO
nongovernmental organization
NHPA
National Historic Preservation Act
NHS
national highway system
NOAA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NOX
nitrogen oxides
NPDES
national pollutant discharge elimination system
NPS
National Park Service
NRC
National Research Council
NWP
nationwide permit
PM10
particulate matter up to 10 micrometers in diameter
ROD
record of decision
SAMP
special area management plan
SEA
street edge alternatives
SEF
southeastern ecological framework
SEMP
Strategic Environmental Management Program
SIP
state implementation plan
SPGP
state program general permit
STIP
state transportation improvement plan
STPP
surface transportation policy project
TE
transportation enhancement
TEA-21
Transportation Equity Act for the Twenty-First Century
TIP
transportation improvement program
TMDL
total maximum daily load
TNC
The Nature Conservancy
TRB
Transportation Research Board
USFWS
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service
V/SF
volume to service flow ratio
VMT
vehicle miles of travel
VOC
volatile organic compound
FIGURES
1-1 |
Photograph of double yellow line in the center of a road, |
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1-2 |
A larger segment of the road as seen in Figure 1-1, |
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1-3 |
A larger (longer segment) of road on Emory campus, |
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1-4 |
At this scale of photograph, most of the buildings that make up the central campus of Emory University can be seen embedded in a network of roads, |
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1-5 |
At an extent of 10 km × 10 km, the road patterns around Emory campus are evident, yet individual roads are scarcely visible, |
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1-6 |
At an extent of 100 km × 100 km, the urban imprint of Atlanta is visible, |
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1-7 |
At an extent of 1,000 km × 1,000 km, geological features dominate, |
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1-8 |
At an extent of approximately 10,000 km × 10,000 km, clouds and atmospheric structures appear as well as the entire continent of North America, |
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1-9 |
Ecological hierarchy indicated by the spatial and temporal scales of vegetation structures (needles, patches, and forests), disturbance processes (fire), and atmospheric structures (fronts), |
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2-1 |
Time course of number of vehicle miles traveled by year from 1960 to 2000, indicating travel on rural and urban portions of the highway system, |
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2-2 |
Map of National Highway System in the 50 states, the District of Columbia, and Puerto Rico, |
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2-3 |
Miles of road and use of roads in urban and rural portions of the National Highway System, |
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2-4 |
Total road mileage (summation of all road lengths) and travel by functional type in the year 2000, |
2-5 |
Example of rectangular grid pattern of roads in Chicago, |
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2-6 |
Example of hub-and-spoke pattern of roads found in Washington, DC, |
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2-7 |
Traffic congestion map showing a concentration of congested highways in the southeastern and south-central regions of New Hampshire, |
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2-8 |
Percentage of vehicle miles traveled on urban freeways and principal arterials occurring under congested conditions from 1987 to 2000, |
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2-9 |
Pavement surface condition of the national and interstate highway systems, |
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3-1 |
Road affecting four aspects of stream connectivity, |
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3-2 |
Sources of 23 pollutant constituents in storm-water runoff, |
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3-3 |
Schematic representation of the primary ecological effects of roads on species and populations, |
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3-4 |
Wildlife crossings are designed to link critical habitats and provide safe movement of animals across busy roads, |
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3-5 |
Spatial and temporal dimensions of ecological effects of roads, |
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4-1 |
Illustration of a reduction in total road length reducing the ecological effect of roads and traffic, |
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4-2 |
Illustration of the effect of traffic volume on the road-avoidance zone or the distance maintained by those animals that avoid a road, |
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4-3 |
Illustration of reducing traffic near ecologically sensitive water bodies, |
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4-4 |
Conceptual illustration of the general relationship between the width of the road-effect zone and the volume of traffic on the road, |
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4-5 |
Illustration of how the ecological effects of a new road can be mitigated by consideration of surrounding land use, |
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4-6 |
Illustration of mitigation measures to reduce the ecological effects of roads when it is not possible to redirect traffic away from natural areas, |
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4-7 |
Examples of ecological restoration performed by ongoing road maintenance operations, |
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6-1 |
EPA ecological framework: essential ecological attributes, |
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6-2 |
The spectrum of environmental performance measures, |
6-3 |
Diagram of committee’s proposed framework for a rapid assessment method, |
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6-4 |
A suite of indicators across scales is being adopted by the U.S. Department of Defense’s Strategic Environmental Management Project, |
TABLES
2-1 |
Functional System Changes, 1990-2000, |
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2-2 |
Interstate Highway System—Key Statistics, |
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2-3 |
National Highway System Mileage and Travel in Rural and Urban Areas, |
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2-4 |
Ownership of U.S. Roads and Streets, |
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2-5 |
Level-of-Service Chart for Major State Highways in New Hampshire Based on 2002 Traffic Data, |
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2-6 |
Conditions of Highway Bridges, |
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2-7 |
Backlog of Bridge Investment Needs, |
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3-1 |
Comparison of Ecosystem Goods and Services and Ecosystem Structures and Processes Affected by Roads, |
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3-2 |
Summary of Number of Studies Addressing Different Types of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions, |
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3-3 |
Examples of the Extent to Which Road-Induced Effects Penetrate Adjacent Habitat, |
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5-1 |
Types of Considerations Required by Environmental Laws, Programs, and Executive Orders That Address Ecosystems and Components of Ecosystems with Regard to Roads, |
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5-2 |
Types of Considerations Required by Environmental Laws, Programs, and Executive Orders That Address Groups of Organisms (Species and Populations) with Regard to Roads, |
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5-3 |
Types of Considerations Required by Environmental Laws, Programs, and Executive Orders That Address Different Ecosystem Types with Regard to Roads, |
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5-4 |
Ecological Scale at Which Legislation Is Applied, |
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5-5 |
Political Scale at Which Environmental Legislation, Program, or Executive Orders Are Applied, |