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Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 730
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 731
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 732
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 733
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 734
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 735
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 736
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 737
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 738
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 739
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 740
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 741
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 742
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 743
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 744
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 745
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 746
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 747
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 748
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 749
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 750
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 751
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 752
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 753
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 754
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 755
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 756
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 757
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 758
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 759
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 760
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 761
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 762
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 763
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 764
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 765
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 766
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 767
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 768
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 769
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 770
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 771
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Page 772
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2001. Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10026.
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Index A intestinal environment and, 311-312, 454-455 Abortions, spontaneous, 248 lactation and, 244 Absorption of nutrients. See also level of intakes and, 242, 399, 422, 445, Bioavailability of nutrients; 473 Malabsorption syndromes; menaquinones, 164 individual nutrients phytates and, 572, 576 adults, 40, 86, 474, 479 pregnancy and, 243 and adverse effects, 73 processing of foods and, 107, 112, 146, aging and, 40, 86, 146, 474 174, 211 ascorbic acid interactions, 311-312, 521 solubility of compound and, 504 assessment methods, 445, 455, 472 Aceruloplasminemia, 227, 377 calcium interactions, 455-456 Achlorhydria, 311 carotenoids, 86-93, 107 Achromotrichia, 435 dietary fat and, 70, 106-107, 118, 121, Acid phosphatase activity, 529 163 Acrodermatitis enteropathica, 445, 477 foods affecting, 521 Adenosine triphosphate (ATP), 225, 226 form of intake and, 267, 373, 395, 483 Adenosyl diphosphate, 357 form of nutrient and, 73 n.2, 87, 88-89, S-Adenyl homocysteine, 509 227-228, 455-456, 529 S-Adenyl methionine, 509 fractional, 15, 447-448, 449, 450, 462, Adequate intakes (AIs). See also individual 463, 464-465, 468, 469, 472, 473, nutrients 474, 476, 478, 572 appropropriateness of intakes above, gender and, 402 77 human milk vs infant formula, 238, 404 criteria used to derive, 36, 37 infections and, 107 defined, 3, 6, 30, 34 interaction of nutrients and, 70, 106- EAR distinguished from, 37 107, 118, 121, 163, 311-312, 455- extrapolation from other age groups, 456, 482-483 35, 51-52, 53, 111 interindividual variation in, 69, 397, group applications, 554, 561, 564 402 729

730 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES individual applications, 554, 557-558, Adults, ages 19 through 50 years. See also 562-563 Life-stage groups; Men; Women; methods used to set, 30, 50-51, 53 individual nutrients RDA compared to, 4, 6, 31, 35 AIs, 34-35, 562-563 uses, 4, 5, 34-35, 554, 557-558, 561, balance studies, 309-310, 405-406, 428- 562-563, 564, 577 429 Adolescents, ages 14 through 18 years. See biochemical indicators, 239-240 also Life-stage groups; Pubertal bone mineral density, 126-128 development; individual nutrients depletion/repletion studies, 224, 228, age of menarche, 339-340, 573 229, 231, 232, 239-240, 430 AIs, 35, 39, 562-563 EARs, 52 anemia, 335 energy expenditure, 40 basal losses of nutrients, 330, 331, 332, factorial analysis, 240-242, 340 337 hyperthyroidism, 283 bioavailability of nutrients, 337 hypothyroidism, 283 blood volume, 331 peak bone mass, 40 EARs, 39 reference weights and heights, 41, 114 evidence considered in setting EAR, supplement use, 246, 278 271-272, 330-338, 427 thyroid iodine accumulation and extrapolation of data for, 269, 272, turnover, 273-274 282, 331, 406, 413, 427, 430-431, Adults, ages 51+ years. See also Life-stage 437 groups; individual nutrients goiter, 271-272 AIs, 40 growth velocity, 39, 53, 331, 338, 339 absorption of nutrients, 40, 86, 474, hemoglobin concentrations, 305, 330, 479 331-333, 335, 336, 338 γ-carboxyglutamyl excretion, 167 hypervitaminosis A, 144 dietary intakes, 186 lactation, 117, 184, 211, 244-245, 250, EARs, 40 251, 407, 413-414, 431-432, 479, energy expenditure, 40 487, 519, 528 energy needs, 209 median weights, by age, 332 institutionalized, 171 menstrual losses, 332, 334-337, 338 nickel, 523 method used to set AIs, 180, 207, 404- physical activity, 40 405 physiological functioning, 40 method used to set EAR, 112, 238 renal function, 40, 69 oral contraceptive use, 335, 336, 350, silicon, 532 700, 702 vanadium, 533, 534 pregnancy, 116, 117, 142, 183, 184, vegetarian diets, 479-480 210-211, 243-244, 276, 277, 348-349, vitamin K, 166, 167, 182, 186 406-407, 413-414, 430-431, 477, 487, zinc, 451, 474-475, 479, 559, 562 519, 528 Adverse effects. See also individual nutrients reference weights and heights, 41, 42, absorption of nutrients, 73 210, 338 aging and, 508 serum transferrin, 304 defined, 60, 72, 704 special considerations, 330, 339-340, evidence of, 72 358, 573 form of intake and, 358, 374, 409, 410, variability of requirements, 330-331, 433, 482, 524 337-338 gender differences, 482 Adrenal glands, 522 knowledge gaps, 584 nutrient interactions, 61, 72, 129, 358, 482-483

INDEX 731 population distribution at risk of, 79-80 copper deficiency, 11, 226, 227-228, thresholds, 65-66 486 Aging. See also Adults (51+ years); Life- infants, 296-297, 298, 300, 317 stage groups; individual life stages iron deficiency, 12-13, 22, 44, 226, 295- and absorption of nutrients, 40, 86, 299, 300, 301, 303, 305-306, 317, 146, 474 352, 378, 583 and adverse effects of nutrients, 508 macrocytic normochromic, 228 and bone mineral density, 40 microcytic, 305 and γ-carboxyglutamyl residues, 167 molybdenum and, 433 and chromium concentrations, 200 normocytic hypochromic, 11, 227 food consumption and, 47, 186 pregnancy and, 297-299 and glucose tolerance, 209 reproductive effects, 295, 297-298 and iodine requirements, 274 vanadium and, 536 and liver function, 69 women, 297-299, 305 and PIVKA-II, 168 Angular stomatitis, 300 and plasma phylloquinone, 166 Animal studies and vitamin K, 166, 167, 168, 170 arsenic, 45, 503, 505-506, 507, 508 Albumin, 227, 260, 395, 445, 446, 454, boron, 45, 510, 511-512, 514-517 473, 474, 522 carotenoids, 94 Alcohol consumption and alcoholism chromium, 199-200, 213, 214-215, 458 chromium and, 215 copper, 226-227, 228-229, 232, 234- iron and, 302, 376 235, 244, 246 serum ferritin and, 302 dose-response assessment for ULs, 71, special considerations, 118, 145, 376- 75-76, 78, 436, 710, 711, 712 377, 480 extrapolation of data from, 63, 71, 74, and superoxide dismutase activity, 231, 78, 436, 518, 526, 541, 710, 711, 401 712 vitamin A, 109, 118, 128, 133, 134-139, for hazard identification, 71-72, 73, 145 409-411, 433-434, 514-515, 524 zinc and, 475, 480 iodine, 279, 280 Aldehyde oxidase, 420 iron, 108, 121, 293, 296, 300 Alkaline phosphatase activity, 443, 453, manganese, 396, 401, 406, 409-411 477, 529 methodological considerations, 45, 71, Alopecia, 477, 514 246, 279, 517, 712 Aluminum, 200 molybdenum, 421, 424, 433, 435, 436 Alzheimer’s disease, 532 of neurotoxicity, 409-411 Amenorrhea, 372 nickel, 524, 525, 526 American Academy of Pediatrics, 37, 50, relevance of, 45, 73, 234-235, 246, 279, 51, 97, 317 410, 433 α-Amidating monooxygenase, 225 reproductive effects, 406, 434-435 Amine oxidases, 224-225 uncertainties in, 63, 78, 436, 540, 710, Amino acid metabolism, 13, 44, 204, 394, 711 420-421, 446 vanadium, 532, 535-537, 539-540 Amiodarone, 259, 268 vitamin A, 85, 95-96, 98, 104, 105, 108, Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (Lou 109, 121, 126 Gehrig’s disease), 225-226 vitamin E, 175-176 Analytic epidemiological studies, 47 vitamin K, 172, 173, 175-176, 188 Anemia zinc, 108, 455 adolescents, 335 Antacids, 204, 311, 531 arsenic and, 506 Antibiotics, 164, 165, 166 of chronic disease, 303, 304 Anticoagulants, 172, 174-175

732 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES Antihistamine, 224-225 research recommendations, 28, 509- Antioxidant activity 510, 583 ceruloplasmin, 225 risk characterization, 509 copper, 225-226, 229 and skin pigmentation, 506, 507-508 superoxide dismutase, 225-226 teratogenicity, 507 Antithyroid antibodies, 281, 283 trimethylated, 504 α-1-Antitrypsin deficiency, 248 ULs, 18, 505-510 Antiviral activity, 85-86 units, 709 β-Apocarotenals, 87 zinc deficiency and, 506 Apolipoprotein B100, 94 Arsenicism, 506 Apolipoprotein E, 163 Arsenite, 503, 504, 507 Apoprotein E, 93 Arthralgias, 434 Apoptosis, 444 Arthritis, 372 Apotransferrin, 200 Ascaris lumbricoides infection, 107 Arginase activity, 394, 401 Ascorbic acid, 200, 204, 225, 292, 311-312, Arsenic 313, 314, 315, 521 absorption, 504 Aspirin, 204 acute effects, 506 Atherogenesis, 529 adverse effects, 7, 18, 505-508 Atherosclerosis, 173, 532 and anemia, 506 Athletes animal studies, 45, 503, 505-506, 507, iron requirements, 295, 296, 300, 305, 508 352-353, 574 and blackfoot disease, 506, 508 vanadium supplements, 535, 537, 539 and cancer, 507-508, 509 Autoimmune thyroid disease, 278, 283, developmental toxicity, 503, 507 284 in drinking water, 507, 508, 509 DRIs, 1, 6, 7, 36, 76, 78, 576 erythrocyte binding, 506 B excretion, 504 exposure assessment, 509 Bacillus subtilis, 507 Balance studies food sources, 504, 509 forms, 504, 505, 509 adults, 309-310, 405-406, 428-429 functions, 45, 503 children, 270, 404-405, 423 chromium, 198, 202 gastrointestinal symptoms, 506 gender and, 505, 658-659 copper, 233, 241 and gene regulation, 503 design, 423, 581 infants, 269 genotoxicity, 507 and growth, 45, 503 iodine, 265, 275, 269, 270, 272, 274, hepatotoxicity, 506, 507 275 iron, 292, 308, 309-310, 314, 378 in human milk, 505 inorganic, 504, 505 manganese, 395, 397-399, 404-406 intakes, 57, 504-505, 509, 658-659 methodological considerations, 45, 46, 49, 233, 265, 274, 309, 397 international comparisons, 508 and keratosis, 506, 508 molybdenum, 14, 420, 423, 428-429 by life-stage group, 504, 658-659 pregnancy, 274, 275 uses, 423 malnutrition and, 506 maximum contaminant level, 508, 509 zinc, 445, 448, 455, 456, 458, 472, 474, metabolism, 504 480 Basal losses of nutrients and methionine metabolism, 45 methyltransferase activity, 506 adolescents, 330, 331, 332, 337 and peripheral neuropathy, 506-507 children, 324, 325, 327 copper, 233, 240-242

INDEX 733 extrapolation of data, 331 Blackfoot disease, 506, 508 gender differences, 340 Bladder cancer, 507, 508 infants, 319, 320, 322, 325 Blood. See also Plasma; Serum; other iodine, 274 components iron, 290, 295, 307-308, 320, 322-323, boron concentrations, 511-512, 515 324, 325, 327, 329, 330, 331, 332, cholesterol, 228 337, 340, 341, 342, 343, 344-345, coagulation, 10, 44, 163, 164, 165-168, 347, 349, 569 175, 176, 177, 181-182, 229; see also and lactation, 349 Coagulation factors; Prothrombin pregnancy and, 344-345, 347, 348 donation and, 352, 574 Bilirubin IXa, 293 glucose, 24-25, 203-204, 510 Bioavailability of nutrients. See also manganese, 400, 401, 409 individual nutrients molybdenum, 421, 434 adolescents, 337 pressure, 229, 537 algorithms for estimating, 314-316, 458 provitamin A carotenoids, 83, 90-91, in cow milk, 427, 457 103, 107, 118 data and database issues, 173, 174 transfusions, 358 defined, 69-70, 704 volume, 325-326, 331, 337-338 dietary fat and, 173-174 Body Mass Index, 41, 42, 302, 582, 694 dietary intakes and, 233-234 Body pools. See also individual nutrients digestion and, 444-445 kinetic modeling of, 446, 582 excretory losses and, 70 size and turnover rates, 450-451 food matrix and, 68, 87-90, 107, 174, Body size considerations, 47 312, 351, 359, 411, 414, 424, 429- Body weight. See also Metabolic weight 430, 479, 530 ratio method form of intake and, 70, 87-89, 163, 173- extrapolation on basis of, 42, 51, 52, 174 53, 54, 78, 142, 144, 250, 270, 282, form of nutrient and, 70, 88-89, 107, 321, 404, 413, 437, 463, 487, 519, 186, 311, 568 569 in human milk, 457, 557-558 gender and, 52, 332, 333 in infant formulas, 4, 38, 50, 112, 180, and iron losses, 308, 322-323, 327, 329, 206, 238, 267, 270, 317, 322, 427, 331, 332, 333, 338, 340, 343, 582 462, 557-558, 561 loss, 201 lactation and, 349 median, by age, 332 level of intake and, 315, 572 nickel and, 525 nutrient-nutrient interactions and, 70, pregnancy-related gains, 54, 210, 298, 108, 173-174, 292, 311-312, 313, 407, 430, 518 314, 315, 582-583 reference weights and heights, 41-42, nutritional status of individuals and, 52, 114, 210, 329, 338, 468 70, 174 Bone formation and growth pregnancy and, 346-347 biomarkers of turnover, 169 processing of foods and, 87, 313 copper and, 227, 228, 229 and risk assessment, 69-70, 75 manganese and, 13, 44, 394, 396 from supplements, 30, 88-89, 70, 173- molybdenum and, 433, 435 174, 568 peak bone mass, 40 in vegetarian diets, 479, 572, 574 silicon and, 45, 529, 530 Biomarkers vitamin K and, 10, 23-24, 162, 169, 170- of bone turnover, 169 171, 172, 189, 583-584 methodological issues, 47 Bone mineral density Birth defects, 128-133 adults, 126-128 Bitot’s spots, 95, 105 aging and, 40

734 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES anticoagulation therapy and, 172 intakes, 55-56, 57, 512-513, 520, 618- carotenoids and, 127-128 621, 644-647 copper and, 228 interaction with other nutrients, 45, manganese and, 396 510-511, 520 menaquinones and, 170, 172 lactation, 513, 519 osteocalcin γ-carboxylation and, 169, by life-stage group, 26, 512, 517-519, 170-171 618-621, 644-647 vitamin A and, 126-128, 133 metabolism, 511-512 vitamin K and, 24, 169, 170-171 methodological issues, 517 women, 126-128, 171, 172 NOAEL/LOAEL, 515, 516, 517-518 Borax, 513, 514 pharmacokinetics, 515 Boric acid, 511, 513, 514, 518 pregnancy, 513, 519, 520 Boron reproductive effects, 512, 514-517 absorption and transport, 511-512, 520 research recommendations, 28, 520- adolescents, 519 521, 583 adults, 16, 26, 517-518 risk characterization, 520 adverse effects, 18, 514-517 supplements, 57, 513, 514, 520, 620- animal studies, 45, 510, 511-512, 514- 621 517 and testicular atrophy, 515, 515-517 blood concentrations, 511-512, 515 ULs, 16, 18, 26, 513-520, 576 and blood glucose, 510 uncertainty assessment, 518 body pools, 511-512 units, 513, 709 calcium and, 511 vegetarians, 520 children, 513, 519 and vitamin D metabolism, 45, 510- and cognitive and neurophysiological 511, 520 function, 511, 521 Boron Nutrient Database, 55-56, 512-513 data selection, 517 developmental effects, 510, 512, 514- 515, 518 C dose-response assessment for ULs, 517- Calcium, 24, 172, 313, 314, 396, 401, 455- 519 in drinking water, 512, 514, 520 456, 457, 458, 462, 479, 480, 511 DRIs, 2, 6, 512, 576 Canada arsenic, 504 and epilepsy, 514 and estrogen, 45, 511, 520-521 cancer, 214 excretion, 511, 512, 515 chromium, 212, 214 dietary intakes, 56, 57, 212, 356, 467, exposure assessment, 520 and extramedullary hematopoiesis, 515 474, 481, 674-679 food sources, 512 infant food recommendations, 317 iodine, 261 forms, 510 functions, 45, 510-511 iron, 57, 676-677 gastrointestinal effects, 514 nickel, 522 Recommended Nutrient Intakes, 1, 37- gender and, 511, 520, 618-621, 644-647 genotoxicity, 514 38, 554, 588 hazard identification, 513-517 reference weights and heights, 41-42 stomach cancer in gold miners, 214 in human milk, 513 human studies, 514 vitamin A, 57, 94, 674-675 and hyperkeratosis, 515 vitamin K, 176, 177-178 zinc, 57, 451, 452, 467, 474, 481, 678- and immune function, 511 infants, 514, 519 679 and insulin secretion, 510-511 Canadian Paediatric Society, 37, 50, 51, 317

INDEX 735 Cancer/carcinogenicity. See also individual and chronic diseases, 83 sites depletion/repletion studies, 88-89 arsenic and, 507-508, 509 excretion, 88 ceruloplasmin and, 230 food sources, 88-90, 112, 122, 124, 562 childhood, 176-177, 188 fortified foods, 565 chromium, 214 gender and, 598-599 copper and, 248 intakes, 119, 123, 124, 598-599 iodine and, 259, 262, 266, 279, 280, interaction with other nutrients, 109 284 international units, 565-566 iron and, 302, 303, 370-372, 373 by life-stage group, 598-599 men, 370-371, 377 provitamin A activity, 2, 82-83 molybdenum and, 435 RAEs, 10, 82, 87-93, 564 serum ferritin and, 302 supplements, 88-91, 95, 107, 565 serum transferrin receptors, 304, 370 Carotenoids. See also β-Carotene; silicon, 531 Provitamin A carotenoids; other vanadium, 538 individual carotenoids vitamin A and, 85, 96 competitive interactions among, 109 vitamin K and, 176-177, 187-188 intakes, 123, 597-605 women, 371 Casein, 317, 457, 462 zinc, 483 Catecholamines, 225, 229 Carbohydrate metabolism, 13, 44, 201, Cellular retinoic acid-binding protein 204, 394, 396, 444 (CRABP-1 and -II), 85 Carbon monoxide, 293 Cellular retinol-binding protein (CRBP), Carbonic anhydrase, 443 85 γ-Carboxyglutamyl residues, 163, 167, 172, Central nervous system. See also 173, 174, 189 Neurological abnormalities Cardiovascular disease defects, 128 copper and, 226, 228-229 function, 225, 226, 297 gender and, 359, 377-378 Ceruloplasmin iron and, 303, 359, 364-371, 372, 373, antioxidant activity, 225 377-378 and copper status, 224, 225, 227-228, nickel and, 529 229, 230, 231, 235, 239-240, 484 serum ferritin and, 365-367, 370, 377- deficiency, 227, 377 378 infants, 235 silicon and, 532 and iron, 225, 293 total iron-binding capacity and, 303, and liver disease, 230 370-371 pregnancy and, 230 vanadium and, 537 Children, ages 1 through 13 years. See also vitamin K and, 173 Life-stage groups; individual α-Carotene, 2, 10, 82, 91-92, 122, 123, 564, nutrients 594-597 accretion of new tissue, 464, 467, 468 β-Carotene. See also Carotenoids AIs, 34, 35, 39, 51-52, 562-563 absorption, 86-93, 109 balance studies, 270, 404-405, 423 animal studies, 94 basal losses of nutrients, 324, 325, 327 bioavailability, 87, 107 blood volume, 325-326 bioconversion to vitamin A, 2, 82-83, calcium, 313 86-93, 565 cancer, 176-177, 188 blood concentrations, 83, 90-91, 107, copper deficiency anemia, 486 118 diarrhea, 96, 97 body stores, 94 dietary intakes, 466, 467 and bone mineral density, 127-128 EARs, 32, 39, 42, 51-52

736 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES factorial analysis, 463, 467, 468 balance studies, 198, 202 food sources for, 184-185, 698 bioavailability, 211 fractional absorption of nutrients, 464- blood glucose and, 24-25, 203-204 465 body stores, 200, 205, 209-210 growth, 39, 53, 309, 324, 327, 328, 449- and carbohydrates, 201, 204 450, 465-466, 467-468 carcinogenicity, 214 hemoglobin mass, 324, 325-326 children, 207 hypervitaminosis A, 144 deficiency, 200-201 idiopathic copper toxicosis, 248, 251 and diabetes, 24-25, 200, 201, 216, 584 Indian childhood cirrhosis, 248, 251 dietary fiber and, 204, 209 infectious diseases, 96-97 dose response assessment for ULs, 215- intestinal losses of nutrients, 463-464 216 iron deficiency in infancy, 297 energy intakes and, 11, 205, 208-209, liver damage, 250 212 malnourished, 97, 270, 454 excretion, 199-200, 202, 207, 210 measles, 96, 97 exposure assessment, 216 methodological considerations, 32, 39, factors affecting requirement, 204 51-52, 53, 112, 180 food composition analysis, 54, 569, 583 mortality, 96-97, 262, 357 food sources, 211, 216 osteoporosis, 227 forms of, 197, 213 Plasmodium falciparum malaria, 96 function, 11, 44, 197, 198 poisoning deaths, 357 gender and, 11, 56-57, 202, 207, 208, RDA, 52 209, 212, 216, 620-621 reference weights and heights, 41-42, genotoxicity, 197, 214 468 and glucose tolerance, 44, 198, 199, supplement use, 96 201, 203-204, 209, 213, 216, 584 supplementation studies, 465-466 hazard identification, 213-215 thyroid gland monitoring, 284 and hepatic dysfunction, 214-215 ULs, 42, 53 in human milk, 205, 206, 209, 210 variability of requirements, 327-328 indicators of adequacy, 11, 12-13, 22, water consumption, 247 24-25, 202-204 xerophthalmia, 95, 97, 99 infants, 198, 205-207, 209-210 Cholesterol and insulin activity, 11, 24-25, 197, 198, copper and, 228 199, 203-204, 213, 216, 584 manganese and, 396, 410-411 intakes, 11, 202, 205, 212-213, 216, plasma, 396 620-621 serum, 359 interaction with drugs, 204, 209 zinc and, 481, 482, 486 interaction with other nutrients, 200, Chromium III 204, 209 absorption, 198-199, 204, 209, 210, intervention trials, 201, 213 211, 213, 216 iron and, 200 adolescents, 207, 210-211 lactation and, 210-211, 212, 216 adults (19-50), 56-57, 208-210 by life-stage group, 12-13, 205-211, 620- adults (51+), 202, 208-209 621 aging and, 200 metabolism, 200, 216 AIs, 12-13, 197, 207, 208, 209, 210, 211, method used to set AIs, 11, 51-52, 54, 558, 561, 562-563, 564, 569 197, 205-207, 208-210 amino acids and, 204 methodological issues, 25, 51-52, 54, animal studies, 199-200, 213, 214-215, 202, 211, 212, 214, 583 458 NOAEL/LOAEL, 215-216 ascorbic acid and, 200, 204 oxalate and, 204

INDEX 737 physical exercise and, 199, 207, 215 Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by phytate and, 204 Individuals (CSFII) picolinic complexes, 458 arsenic, 504-505 plasma concentration, 202 boron, 57, 512-513, 644-647 pregnancy and, 54, 209-210, 216 carotenoids, 122, 566, 568 and renal failure/disease, 213, 215 copper, 57, 648-649 reproductive effects, 215 defined, 55, 705 research recommendations, 216, 583 food composition data, 697-698 and rhabdomyolysis, 215 iodine, 278 risk characterization, 216 iron, 21, 57, 650-651, 697-703 sensitive subpopulations, 215 reference weights and heights, 329 special considerations, 207 supplement data, 57 supplements, 25, 56-57, 198, 200, 212- vitamin A, 122, 566 213, 216, 458, 620-621 zinc, 57, 481, 575, 652-653 ULs, 7, 18, 36, 76, 78, 213-216 Copper units, 709 absorption and transport, 226-227, Chromium IV, 197, 213 233-234, 238, 242, 243, 246-247 Chromosomal damage and aberrations, 214 adolescents, 238-239, 243-244, 245, Chronic disease 250, 251 carotenoids and, 83 adverse effects, 18, 224, 247-248 evidence on prevention of, 9 adults (19+), 16, 26, 56-57, 224, 228, micronutrients and, 300, 583-584 234, 239-243, 246, 249-250, 251, Chronic gastritis, 300 252 Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis, 300 AIs, 238 Chylomicron secretion, 87, 93, 163 and anemia, 11, 226, 227-228 Circulating lipid levels animal studies, 226-227, 228-229, 232, Citric acid, 200, 312, 357 234-235, 244, 246 Coagulation factors antioxidant activity, 225-226, 229 antibiotics and, 164, 165, 166 balance studies, 233, 241 II, see Prothrombin bioavailability, 233-234, 243, 244, 252 V, 229 biochemical indicators, 11-12, 230-233, VII, 163, 166 239-240, 242 VIII, 229 and blood coagulation, 229 IX, 163 and blood pressure, 229 X, 163 body stores/retention, 226, 233, 234, manganese and, 396 235, 243 Cognitive function and bone formation and growth, 227, boron and, 511, 521 228, 229 copper and, 252 and cancer, 248 development in infants, 295, 300 and cardiovascular disease, 226, 228- iron and, 13, 295, 296-297, 300, 378, 583 229 manganese and, 410 and catecholamine metabolism, 225, zinc and, 444, 445, 449 229 Collagen metabolism, 45, 225, 529, 530 and central nervous system function, Colon cancer, 371-372 225, 226 Colorectal cancer, 371, 372 ceruloplasmin concentration and, 224, Common cold, 477 225, 227-228, 229, 230, 231, 235, Congenital atransferrinemia, 377 239-240, 484 Conjunctival impression cytology, 105 children, 51-52, 227, 238-239, 247, 248, Conjunctival xerosis, 95 250, 251, 252 Connective tissue synthesis, 44, 225, 226 and cholesterol (blood), 228

738 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES and connective tisse synthesis, 225, 226 interaction with other nutrients, 225, critical endpoint, 249 226, 227, 231, 234, 246-247, 424, and cytochrome c oxidase activity, 225, 434 230, 231, 240 and iron utilization, 225, 226, 227, 234, data selection, 249 246 deficiency effects, 226, 227-230, 238, lactation, 235, 244-245, 250, 251 252, 424 leukocyte concentration, 232 depletion/repletion studies, 224, 228, by life-stage group, 14-15, 26, 235-245, 229, 231, 232, 239-240, 242 249-251, 622-625, 648-649, 660-661 and diamine oxidase activity, 224-225, liver damage, 224, 248, 249, 251 232-233 and lysyl oxidase activity, 225, 232 and dietary protein, 246-247 and Menkes’ disease, 226, 232 dose-response assessment for ULs, 249- metabolism, 226-227, 246-247, 433 251 metalloenzymes, 11, 224-226, 456 in drinking water, 247, 249, 251-252 method used to set AI, 51-52, 235, 237 EARs, 14-15, 238-239, 242, 244, 245 method used to set EAR, 11-12, 51-52, energy expenditure and, 238 238-239 evidence considered in setting EAR, methodological considerations, 51-52, 239-242, 243, 244 232, 246, 247 excretion, 226, 227, 231-232, 233, 234, molybdenum and, 246, 424, 433, 434, 240-242, 424 435, 436, 437, 438 exposure assessment, 251-252 NOAEL/LOAEL, 249 factorial analysis, 233, 240-242 and osteoporosis, 227 factors affecting requirement, 233-235 and peptidyl glycine α-amidating and ferroxidases, 225, 293 monooxygenase activity, 225, 232 fetal, 243 plasma concentration, 224, 229, 239- food sources, 245 240 in formula, 234, 238 platelet concentration, 224, 230, 231, fructose and, 234-235 239-240 functions, 11, 44, 224-226, 443 pregnancy, 226, 229-230, 243-244, 250, gastric acidity and, 226 251 gastrointestinal effects, 247, 248, 249 RDAs, 2, 12, 14-15, 224, 239, 242-243, gender and, 56-57, 228, 245, 251, 622- 244, 245 625, 648-649, 660-661 renal dysfunction and, 227 and glucose tolerance, 229 reproductive effects, 248 hazard identification, 246-249 research recommendations, 252 hereditary defects in homeostasis, 248 risk characterization, 252 in human milk, 235, 236-237, 244 serum concentration, 229, 230, 235, 484 human studies, 247 special considerations, 238, 251, 438 and idiopathic copper toxicosis, 248, and superoxide dismutase activity in 251 erythrocytes, 224, 225-226, 229, and immune function, 226, 229 231, 239-240 and Indian childhood cirrhosis, 248, supplements, 56-57, 227, 228, 229, 230, 251 232-233, 246, 247, 248, 252 indicators of adequacy, 11-12, 14-15, ULs, 2, 16, 18, 26, 224, 246-252, 562 224, 229-233 uncertainty assessment, 249 infants, 51, 226, 227, 234, 235-238, 250 units, 709 intakes, 57, 224, 233-234, 235-237, 241, and Wilson’s disease, 227, 234, 248, 245-246, 251-252, 622-625, 648-649, 251, 456 660-661 zinc and, 225, 234, 246, 443, 456, 458, interaction with drugs, 225 482, 484-488, 558

INDEX 739 Corneal ulceration, 95 copper, 224, 228, 229, 231, 232, 239- Corneal xerosis, 95 240, 242 Coronary heart disease, 359, 365, 368-369 design, 581 Cow milk, 38, 179-180, 207, 227, 238, 270, manganese, 396, 397, 399, 400 283, 317, 404, 425, 427, 457, 462 methodological considerations, 45, 46 Cranial neural crest (CNC) defects, 128- molybdenum, 430 129, 138 vitamin A, 88-89, 122 Craniofacial malformations, 128 vitamin K, 167 Cretinism, 44, 261-262 zinc, 108, 473-474 Critical endpoints Developing countries defined, 76 iron, 351-352, 359, 377, 378 identification of, 70, 75-76, 249 vitamin A, 94, 95, 96-97, 112, 118-122, Crohn’s disease, 446 145 β-Cryptoxanthin, 2, 10, 82, 91, 122, 123, zinc, 488 600-601 Developmental effects CSFII. See Continuing Survey of Food boron, 510, 512, 514-515, 518 Intakes by Individuals iron, 295, 296-297, 300 Cysteine, 443 Developmental toxicity, 503, 507 Cytochrome c oxidase activity, 225, 230, Diabetes mellitus, 302, 372 231, 240 chromium and, 24-25, 200, 201, 216, Cytochromes, iron and, 12, 291-292 584 Cytokines, 445 vanadium and, 532, 534, 535, 536, 539, 542 Diamine oxidase, 224-225, 232-233 D Diarrhea, 96, 97, 107, 118, 477 Dietary intakes. See also Canada; Food Dark adaptation sources; Nutrient intakes; vitamin A and, 10, 21, 87-89, 95, 97-99, Supplements; individual nutrients 121, 123, 300-301, 568 and bioavailability of nutrients, 233- zinc and, 108-109 234 Data and database issues. See also data and database issues, 53-58, 104, Extrapolation of data 173, 556 on bioavailability of nutrients, 173, 174 elderly people, 47, 186 for dietary intakes, 53-58, 104, 173, 556 geographic location and, 512 for dose-response assessment for ULs, infants, 37, 111 66, 75-76, 77, 122, 133, 142-143, measurement errors, 182, 406, 559 249, 281, 373, 375, 412, 436, 483- methodological issues, 47, 54-55, 166, 484, 486, 517 182, 186, 212, 432, 466, 556, 559, food composition databases, 54, 55-56, 572, 583 184, 512-513, 560, 569, 583, 697-698 provitamin A carotenoid conversion methodological issues, 2, 7, 8, 32, 39, factor and, 122-123 48-49, 173 research recommendations, 583 nutrients intakes, 54, 55-57, 556 self-reported, 47, 54-55, 556, 583 quality and completeness of data, 2, 7, survey data, 54-58, 245, 356, 560-561 8, 32, 39, 48-49, 54, 66, 74, 77, 173, underreporting of, 20, 47, 54-55, 208, 184, 560, 569 209, 353, 556, 560-561, 583 supplement use, 57-58 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) types of data used, 45-49 applicable population, 2, 30 Depletion/repletion studies approach for setting, 7-9, 29-30, 576, adults, 224, 228, 229, 231, 232, 239- 589-590 240, 430 carotenoids, 88-89

740 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES categories, 2-7, 29, 30-36; see also components and process, 72, 75-79 Adequate Intakes; Estimated critical endpoints, 75-76 Average Requirements; data selection, 75-76, 122, 142-143, Recommended Dietary Allowances; 249, 281, 373, 375, 412, 436, 483- Tolerable Upper Intake Levels 484, 486, 517, 525, 539-540 criteria for, 8-27, 36 defined, 64, 705 defined, 2, 6, 29-30, 42 extrapolation from animals to humans, extrapolation from other age groups, 78, 711 32, 35, 39, 41, 51-53, 78 infants, 143-144, 375-376, 413, 437, framework, 555, 587-590 486-487, 519 group applications, 5, 19-22, 34, 123, interindividual variation in sensitivity 554, 558-562, 563-564, 566-567, 577- and, 77-78, 711 578 lactation, 375, 413, 414, 438, 487, 519 individual applications, 5, 554, 555- NOAEL/LOAEL identification, 76-77, 558, 562-563, 577-578 133, 138, 143-144, 249, 281, 374, nutrient-specific considerations, 564- 375-376, 412, 436, 484-486, 517-518, 576 525-526, 540 origin, 587-588 pregnancy, 133, 138, 375, 413, 414, parameters for, 36-42; see also Life-stage 438, 487, 519 group; Reference weights and special considerations, 79, 145, 283, heights 376-377, 414, 438, 488, 528 precision of values, 9 UL derivation from, 64-65, 78, 126, prevalence of inadequacy, 21-22 139, 143, 144, 250, 282, 373, 374, sources of data, 2, 20-22, 45-49; see also 376, 412, 437, 488, 518, 526-527, 541 Methodological considerations uncertainty assessment, 76, 77-78, 139, transition from RDAs, 554-555 143, 144, 249, 281, 374, 376, 412, uses, 2, 5, 19-22, 30, 554-578 436, 486-487, 518, 526, 540-541, 2′,3′-Dihydrophylloquinone, 185-186 710, 711 Dihydroxyphenylacetic acid, 410 Down’s syndrome, 231 Diiodotyrosine, 260 Drinking water, 267-268, 284, 642-643 Dimethylarsenic acid, 504 arsenic in, 507, 508, 509 Dimethylprostaglandin E2, 204 boron, 512, 514, 520 Disinfectants, 268 children’s intakes, 247 Divalent metal transporter protein copper, 247, 249, 251-252 (DMT1), 293, 294 manganese, 410, 411, 414 DNA damage and repair molybdenum, 434-435 chromium and, 214 nickel, 524, 528 Dopa, 225 vanadium, 535 Dopamine, 225, 410 zinc, 483 Dopamine β-monooxygenase, 225 Drug interactions Dose-response assessment for ULs. See also chromium, 204, 209 individual nutrients copper, 225 adolescents, 142, 144-145, 375-376, iodine, 268 413, 414, 437-438, 486-487, 519 vitamin A, 129, 133 adults (19-50 years), 142-143, 249-250, vitamin K, 172, 174-175, 568 281-282, 373-375, 412-413, 436-437, Dwarfism, 44 483-486, 517-518, 525-527, 539-541 animal studies, 71, 75-76, 78, 436, 710, 711, 712 E children, 144-145, 375-376, 413, 437- 438, 486-487, 519 Elastin, 225 Elderly people. See Adults ages 51+ years

INDEX 741 Electrooculorgram, 98 knowledge gaps, 581-583 Electroretinogram, 98 methods used to set, 32, 49, 265, 569, Embryonic development, 44, 82, 85, 95-96 583 Endogenous losses and RDA, 3, 6, 32-34, 35 copper, 241-242 reference weights and heights and, 42 zinc, 446, 448, 449, 462, 463, 469, 471- risk of inadequacy, 556, 570 473, 476 standard deviation, 563 Energy uses, 4, 5, 32-34, 49, 554, 555-557, 558- chromium and, 11, 205, 208-209, 212 561, 563-564, 568, 577 expenditures, 40, 238, 427 validation of, 353-355 intakes, 11, 47, 55, 205, 208-209, 212 Estimated safe and adequate daily dietary metabolism, 40, 54 intakes (ESADDI), 576 requirements, 209 Estrogen, 45, 511, 520-521 Enteral diets, 227-228 Excretion. See also Endogenous losses; Enzyme cofactor deficiency, 14, 420, 423, Urinary excretion; individual 424 nutrients Epilepsy, 514 calcium, 24, 172 Epinephrine, 225 γ-carboxyglutamyl, 167 Epithelial cell integrity, 44, 85, 96, 105 fecal, 260, 295, 352, 395, 421, 446, 472 Erythrocyte gastrointestinal losses, 241, 295, 325, arsenic binding to, 506 352 defined, 705 human milk, 269 indexes, 305-306 measurement of, 463 iron, 290, 301, 302, 304, 305-306, 309, menstrual losses; see Menstrual cycle 313, 346, 347, 352 obligatory (basal) losses; see Basal mean corpuscular volume, 706 losses of nutrients metallothionein, 444, 453, 473 sweat, 260 molybdenum in, 421 Expert Scientific Working Group, 306 protoporphyrin concentration, 304, 306 Exposure superoxide dismutase activity, 224, duration of, 73, 76, 360-363 225-226, 229, 231, 239-240, 442, route of, 73, 75-76, 246, 410, 509, 711 482 Exposure assessment. See also individual zinc in, 442, 451, 452, 453, 473, 482 nutrients Erythrosine, 268 defined, 64, 65, 79 Escherichia coli WP2, 507 process, 64, 65 Esophageal webs, 300 supplements, 65 Estimated Average Requirements (EARs). Extramedullary hematopoiesis, 515 See also individual nutrients Extrapolation of data adolescents, 699 from animal studies, 63, 71, 74, 78, AI distinguished from, 37 436, 518, 526, 540, 541, 710, 711, children, 32, 51-52, 699 712 coefficient of variation, 32-33 basal losses, 331 criteria used to derive, 7, 8-9, 36 body surface area basis, 325, 569 defined, 3, 6, 8, 30, 31-32 body weight basis, 42, 51, 52, 53, 54, distribution of, 699, 700 78, 142, 144, 250, 270, 282, 321, extrapolation to/from other age 404, 413, 437, 463, 487, 519, 569 groups, 32, 49, 51-52 caloric intake basis, 228 group applications, 5, 20, 554, 558-561, daily intakes from urinary losses, 264, 563-564, 568, 570-572 272 individual applications, 554, 555-557 growth factors by age group, 51, 53, 331 infants, 6 from human milk intakes, 463

742 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES metabolic weight ratio method, 53, and manganese, 395, 401, 402, 405 238, 272, 426, 427 vanadium, 533 NOAEL from LOAEL, 143, 144, 281, Ferroxidases, 225, 293 374, 486, 540, 541 Fetal from one gender group to another, 341 copper, 243 from other age groups, 32, 35, 39, 41, death, 299 51-53, 78, 111, 112, 122, 144, 178, folate, 456 179, 206-207, 237-238, 250, 269, hemoglobin, 316 270, 272, 282, 321, 331, 404, 406, hypothyroidism, 261-262 413, 437, 463, 465, 467, 469, 470, iodine, 261-262, 275 487, 519 iron, 290, 299, 300, 309, 316, 345-346, from subchronic to chronic intake, 78, 347 711 manganese, 406, 411 uncertainties in, 77-78, 436, 518, 526, molybdenum, 436 540 neurobehavioral development, 477 nickel toxicity, 524, 526 resorption, 95 F sensitivity to nutrients, 69, 507 vitamin A, 116, 128-129 Factorial analysis, 49, 51 vitamin K, 182 adults, 240-242, 340 Fiber, dietary children, 463, 467, 468 and chromium, 204, 209 copper, 233, 240-242 and silicon, 530 infants, 463 and zinc, 458, 480 iron, 13, 41, 290, 307-309, 319, 324, Fibrocystic breast disease, 259, 284 330, 340-343, 344, 347, 348, 569 Flavoproteins, 291 manganese, 397 Folate, 521, 529 pregnancy, 476 Follicular hyperkeratosis, 96 zinc, 15, 442, 447, 462, 463, 467, 468, Food additives, 268, 277, 530 469-470, 471-473, 476 Food and Agriculture Organization, 29-30, Fasting/starvation, 267, 373, 446, 448, 451 60 Fat, dietary Food and Drug Administration. See Total and absorption of nutrients, 70, 106- Diet Study 107, 118, 121, 163 Food coloring, 268 hydrogenated, 174, 185-186 Food composition data malabsorption syndromes, 164, 174 analytical methods, 54, 56, 184, 560, and manganese-superoxide dismutase 569, 583 activity, 401 carotenoids, 93, 124 and vitamin A, 70, 106-107, 118, 121 chromium, 54, 569, 583 and vitamin E bioavailability, 173-174 iodine, 277 and vitamin K, 163, 173-174, 185-186 iron, 697-698 Ferritin quality and completeness of, 54, 184, and cancer, 302 569 and cardiovascular disease, 365-367, recommendations, 564 370, 377-378 vitamin A, 124, 565-566 gender differences, 395, 684-685, 694, vitamin K, 184, 185 695 zinc, 560 and iron, 21, 225, 291, 294, 299, 300, Food matrix and bioavailability of 301-303, 306, 307, 311, 313, 314, nutrients, 68, 87-90, 107, 174, 312, 315, 351, 352, 353-355, 357, 359, 351, 359, 411, 414, 424, 429-430, 365-367, 370, 371-372, 373, 377-378, 479, 530 572, 684-685, 694, 696

INDEX 743 Food safety, risk assessment and, 62-67 dietary intakes, 122, 202, 354, 594-641, Food sources. See also individual nutrients 644-653, 654-673, 674-679 for children, 184-185, 698 and drinking water intakes, 642-643 goitrogens, 267-268 and energy balance, 212 major contributors, 58 extrapolation of data on basis of, 341 methodological issues, 58 and ferritin, 395, 684-685, 694, 695 Formulas, infant and growth velocity, 331 absorption of nutrients in, 238, 404 and hemoglobin, 333, 336, 680-681 AIs, 562 and iodine excretion, 690-691 bioavilability of nutrients, 4, 38, 50, and plasma glucose, 695 112, 180, 206, 238, 267, 270, 317, reference weights and heights, 41, 52 322, 427, 462, 557-558, 561 and relative body weight, 52, 332, 333 chromium, 207 and retinol, 686-687, 692-693 copper, 234, 238 and retinyl esters, 688-689 cow milk-based, 38, 227, 404, 462 serum values for biochemical dephytinized, 402 indicators by, 680-689 DRIs, 37-38 and supplement use, 56-57, 187, 278, iodine and, 267, 270 612-613, 620-621, 626-627, 632-637 iron in, 4, 234, 317, 322-323 and transferrin, 682-683 manganese in, 397, 402, 404 Gene expression, 15, 44, 82, 85, 442, 443, molybdenum in, 425 454, 521 soy-based, 267, 402, 404, 462 Gene regulation, 503 supplemented/fortified, 238, 317, 322, Genetic defects, 248 462 Genetic markers, 46, 453 toxicity of nutrients in, 486 Genotoxicity, 197, 214, 507, 514 vitamin K, 178, 179-180, 185-186 Glossitis, 300 Fortification of foods, 119, 145, 355-356, Glucagon, 446 358, 378, 563, 565 Glucose tolerance Free fatty acids, 201 aging and, 209 Fructose and, 234-235 chromium and, 44, 198, 199, 201, 203- Functional isolation paradigm, 297 204, 209, 213, 216, 584 copper and, 229 manganese and, 396 G nickel and, 521 vanadium and, 532 Gastric acidity, 226, 292, 311 Glucuronide conjugation, 164 Gastric cancer, 259 Glutamine synthetase, 394 Gastroenteritis, 107 Glycotransferases, 394 Gastrointestinal effects Goiter, 12, 44, 261, 264-265, 266, 267, 271- arsenic poisoning, 506 272, 276, 279-280, 283, 284 boron, 514 Green tongue, 538 copper, 247, 248, 249 Growth velocity iron, 290, 352, 358, 360-365, 373-377 adolescents, 39, 53, 331, 338, 339 vanadium, 536, 539 arsenic and, 45, 503 zinc, 482 children, 39, 53, 309, 324, 327, 328, Gender. See also Men; Women; individual 449-450, 465-466, 467-468 nutrients infants, 37, 38, 50, 53, 317, 320, 462, and absorption of nutrients, 402 465-466 and adverse effects of nutrients, 482 iron and, 290, 309, 317, 320, 324, 328, and γ-carboxyglutamyl residues, 167 331, 333, 338, 339, 573 and cardiovascular disease, 359 manganese and, 396

744 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES molybdenum and, 433, 435 iron and, 12, 22, 44, 290, 291, 292, nickel, 521 295, 299, 302, 303, 305, 306, 307, vitamin A and, 44, 82 308, 316, 319, 320-321, 322-323, zinc and, 444, 446-447, 449-450, 452, 324, 325-326, 329, 330, 331-333, 454, 462, 464, 465-466, 467-468 335, 336, 337-338, 342, 345-346, 349, 680-681 mean corpuscular, 706 H molybdenum and, 435 nickel in, 521 Hazard identification. See also individual Hemoglobinuria, 352 nutrients Hemolysis, 400 adverse effects, 72, 125, 126-133, 213- Hemorrhagic disease of the newborn 215, 247-248, 357-372, 409-412, 433- (HDNB), 176, 177 435, 482-483, 514-517, 524-525, 535- Hemorrhagic syndrome, 175 538 Hemosiderin, 291, 294, 357 animal studies, 71-72, 73, 409-411, 433- Hepatitis, 129, 133, 134-139 434, 514-515, 524 Hepatocellular carcinoma, 370, 372 causality, 46, 71, 72 Hephaestatin, 225 components of, 64, 71-75 Histidine, 443 data quality and completeness and, 74 Homocysteine, 521 defined, 64, 705 Homovanillic acid, 410 duration of exposure and, 73 Hookworm, 351 experimental data on nutrient toxicity Hormone metabolism, 443, 444, 454, 532 and, 73 Hormone replacement therapy, 350-351, human studies, 71, 434, 514, 524 573 mechanisms of toxicity and, 74, 435, Human immunodeficiency virus, 443 515 Human milk. See also Lactation pharmacokinetic and metabolic data absorption of nutrients in, 238, 404 and, 73-74, 435 adequacy for infants 0 to 6 months, 37- route of exposure and, 73 38, 50, 316, 557-558, 561, 562 sensitive subpopulations, 74-75, 215, analysis of nutrient content, 227 372-373 arsenic in, 505 Hemachromatosis, 200, 358, 359, 370, bioavailability of nutrients in, 457, 557- 372-373, 376, 378 558 Hematological disorders, 358, 372, 536- boron in, 513 537 carotenoids in, 111, 117 Hematopoiesis, 316, 515 chromium, 205, 206, 209, 210 Hematuria, 352 colostrum, 177, 178-179 Heme-flavoproteins, 291 copper, 235, 236-237, 244 Heme oxygenase enzyme, 293-294 excretion quantity, 269 Heme proteins, 291, 292, 293-294, 304, extrapolation of data from intakes of, 311, 312, 314, 315, 327, 356, 374, 463 455, 483 and hemorrhagic disease of the Hemianopsia, transient, 524 newborn, 177 Hemoglobin intakes, 37, 110, 111, 177, 178, 205, adolescents, 305, 330, 331-333, 335, 318-319, 463 336, 338 iodine, 268-269, 277, 283 children, 324, 325-326 iron, 6, 51, 316-317, 318-319, 320, 322- gender and, 333, 336, 680-681 323, 349, 697 infants, 316, 319, 320-321, 322-323 manganese, 402, 403, 404, 407 molybdenum, 425, 426, 431

INDEX 745 nickel, 523 Impotence, 372, 477 silicon, 530 Indian childhood cirrhosis, 248, 251 vitamin A, 110-111, 117 Indicators of nutrient adequacy. See also vitamin K, 177-180, 183-184 specific indicators, life stages, and zinc, 6, 51, 457, 460-462, 463, 465, 477- nutrients 478 biochemical, 11-12, 230-233, 239-240, Human studies. See also Observational 242, 301-306, 423, 572, 680-691 studies functional, 300-301 boron, 514 risk reduction-based, 22-25 children, 465-466 Infant Growth Study, 328 copper, 247 Infants, premature, 227, 297, 298, 425, 573 for dose-response assessment for ULs, 75 Infants, ages 0 through 12 months. See also ethical considerations, 50, 61, 71 Formulas, infant; Human milk for hazard identification, 71 accretion of new tissue, 464 manganese ecological studies, 411 ages 0 through 6 months, 4, 37, 38, 50, methodological considerations, 45-46, 110, 177-178, 205, 235, 268-269, 67-68 316-319, 403, 425, 458-463, 486, molybdenum, 434 562 nickel, 524 ages 7 through 12 months, 6, 37, 38, vanadium, 535, 536, 537-538 51, 111, 178-179, 205-207, 235, 237- Hydroxyapatite, 168 238, 269-270, 319-323, 404, 425-426, 5-Hydroxyindole acetic acid, 410 463-466, 562 Hydroxylysine, 225 AI derivation for, 4, 34, 35, 37, 38, 50- Hydroxyproline, 24, 172 51, 53, 110-111, 557-558, 561, 562, Hyperglycemia, 213 564 Hyperkeratosis, 515 antiseptic toxicity, 280 Hyperlipidemia, 145, 213 Apgar scores, 300 Hypersensitivity to nutrients, 524, 526, 528 balance studies, 269 Hypertension, 532 basal losses of nutrients, 319, 320, 322, Hyperthyroidism, 260, 262, 263, 279, 280, 325 283 bulging fontanel, 125, 132, 140-141, Hyperuricemia, 434 143, 144, 145 Hypervitaminosis A, 125, 133, 134-139, 144 caloric intakes, 205 Hypocholesterolemia, 396, 410-411 ceruloplasmin concentrations, 235 Hypoprothrombinemia, 164-165 choleostatic liver disease, 396 Hypothyroidism, 260, 261-262, 263, 264, cognitive development, 295, 300 266, 267, 279, 280, 283 complementary weaning foods, 38, 51, 111, 178-179, 205, 237, 312, 322, 404, 426, 462, 463, 465, 697 I cow milk allergy, 317 cranial neural crest defects, 128-129, Idiopathic copper toxicosis, 248, 251 138 Immune function defined, 37 boron and, 511 developmental delays, 295, 296-297, 300 copper and, 226, 229 diarrhea, 227 indexes of, 453 dietary intakes, 38, 110, 111, 117, 322- iodine and, 259, 284 323, 463 iron and, 300, 302 extrapolation of data to and from, 51- vitamin A and, 10, 44, 82, 85-86, 96, 53 98, 99, 105-106, 121 factorial analysis, 463 zinc and, 443, 444, 447, 449, 453, 474- goiter, 280 475, 481, 482, 488

746 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES growth velocity, 37, 38, 50, 53, 317, Interleukin-6, 445 320, 462, 465-466 International Atomic Energy Agency hematopoiesis, 316 (IAEA), 29-30, 60-61 hemoglobin concentrations, 316, 319, International comparisons 320-321, 322-323 arsenic, 508 hemorrhagic disease of the newborn, iodine deficiency, 261, 262-263, 271, 176, 177 276, 279, 284 hypercalcemia, 140-141 vitamin K, 187 hypervitaminosis A, 140-141, 143-144, zinc, 476 145 International Council for the Control of hypothyroidism, 280 Iodine Deficiency Disorders, 262, intestinal losses of nutrients, 463-464 263 iron deficiency anemia, 296-297, 298, International Programme on Chemical 300, 317 Safety, 248 low birth weight, 297, 298, 348 Intervention trials malnourished, 198, 227 chromium, 201, 213 method used to set AI, 110-111, 177- intakes above ULs, 125 179, 205-206, 235, 237, 268-269, iodine, 279 402-404, 425-426, 459, 462 iron, 108, 313 methodological considerations, 38, 50- methodological issues, 48 51, 53, 110-111 vitamin A, 90-91, 97, 108, 119, 121, 125 nutrient intakes, 51, 561 vitamin K, 24, 168, 171-173 osteoporosis, 227 Intestinal. See also Gastrointestinal effects recommended food sources, 4, 34, 35, damage, 233 37, 50, 250, 282, 317 environment and absorption, 311-312, reference weight, 41, 320, 404 454-455 skeletal abnormalities, 128-133 iron absorption, 292-293 small for gestational age, 298, 299 losses of nutrients, 463-464 special considerations, 112, 179-180, menaquinone synthesis, 162 206, 238, 270, 317, 404, 427, 462-463 parasites, 107, 118-119, 121, 351-352 thyroid gland of newborns, 275, 280 zinc losses, 448, 456, 463-464, 472, 476 TSH screening for hypothyroidism, Intrauterine devices, 334 261, 266 Iodate, 259 ULs, 69 Iodermia, 280 urinary losses of nutrients, 464 Iodine vitamin K prophylaxis, 176-178 absorption and transport, 259, 267 Infectious diseases, 230, 302, 303, 304, accumulation and turnover, 12, 258, 305, 488 262-263, 269, 273-274, 275 and absorption of nutrients, 107 acute responses, 279 children’s morbidity and mortality, 96- adolescents, 264, 269, 270-273, 276, 97 277, 282, 283 vitamin A and, 96-97, 107, 121 adults (19+), 16, 26, 56-57, 258, 264, zinc and, 445 273-275, 278, 281-282, 283 Inflammatory diseases, 230, 302, 303, 304, adverse effects, 18, 279-280 305 aging and, 274 Inositol hexaphosphate, 312 AIs, 16-17, 270 Institute of Medicine, 51 animal studies, 279, 280 Insulin activity, 11, 24-25, 45, 197, 198, autoimmune thyroid disease and, 278, 199, 203-204, 213, 216, 510-511, 283, 284 532, 534, 584 balance studies, 265, 269, 270, 272, Interleukin-1, 85 274, 275

INDEX 747 bioavailability, 264, 267, 270 iron deficiency and, 268, 284 body stores, 260 laboratory assays, 261, 266, 583 and cancer, 259, 262, 266, 279, 280, 284 lactation, 277, 282, 283 children, 12, 51-52, 262, 264, 265, 269, by life-stage group, 16-17, 26, 268-277, 270-273, 282, 284 281-283, 626-627, 662-663, 690-691 and cretinism, 261-262 and mammary dysplasia, 258-259 data selection, 281 and mental retardation, 261-262 deficiency, 12, 109, 259, 260, 261-268, metabolism, 259-260, 279 275-276, 278, 283, 284 method used to set AI, 51-52, 268-269 dose-response assessment for ULs, 281- method used to set EAR, 12, 51-52, 283 265, 277 EARs, 16-17, 272-273, 274, 276, 277 methodological considerations, 51-52, evidence considered in setting EAR, 265, 274, 284 258, 270-272, 273-274, 275-276 NOAEL/LOAEL, 281, 282 excretion, 259, 260-261, 263-264, 266, pregnancy, 261, 274, 275-277, 280, 282, 269, 271-272, 273, 275, 279, 281, 283 284, 583 RDAs, 12, 16-17, 51-52, 258, 271, 273, exposure assessment, 283-284 274-275, 276, 277 factors affecting requirement, 267-268 and reproductive outcomes, 261, 262 fetal, 261-262, 275 research recommendations, 284, 583 and fibrocystic breast disease, 259, 284 risk characterization, 284 food sources, 261, 275-276, 277, 283 selenium deficiency and, 260, 268, 284 function, 12, 44, 258-259 special considerations, 270, 278, 283 gender and, 56-57, 258, 278, 626-627, supplements, 56-57, 275-276, 278, 279, 662-663, 690-691 280, 281, 284, 626-627 and goiter, 12, 44, 261, 264-265, 266, and thyroglobulin, 259-260, 264, 266- 267, 271-272, 276, 279-280, 283, 267, 276 284 and thyroid size, 259, 264-265, 275-276, goitrogens and, 267-268 279-280, 284 hazard identification, 278-281 and thyroid stimulating hormone in human milk, 268-269, 277, 283 (thyrotropin, TSH), 258, 260, 264, and hyperthyroidism, 260, 262, 263, 265, 266, 268, 276, 279, 280, 281, 279, 280, 283 707 and hypothyroidism, 260, 261-262, 263, and thyroiditis, 263, 279, 283 264, 266, 267, 279, 280, 283 and thyotoxicosis, 280 and immune function, 259, 284 and thyroxine, 258, 267 indicators of adequacy, 16-17, 262-267, and triiodothyronine, 258, 260, 267 690-691 ULs, 2, 16, 18, 26, 258, 278-284, 562 infants, 51-52, 261, 266, 268-270, 275, uncertainty assessment, 281 280, 282 units, 709 intakes, 57, 261, 264, 270, 272, 278, urinary, 259, 260-261, 263-264, 266, 279, 283-284, 626-627, 662-663 269, 271-272, 273-274, 275, 279, interaction with drugs, 268 281, 284, 690-691 interaction with other ingested vitamin A and, 268, 284 substances, 267-268 Iron interaction with other nutrients, 260, absorption and transport, 21, 291, 292- 268, 284 294, 301, 303, 308, 311-313, 314, international comparisons, 261, 262- 315, 317, 321, 322-323, 327, 337, 263, 271, 276, 279, 284 342, 347, 351, 357, 372, 378, 455, intervention studies, 279 483, 521, 697 and iodermia, 280 accretion, 21, 227, 309, 324, 372

748 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES acute toxicity, 357 and cognitive function, 13, 295, 296- adolescents, 21, 292, 302, 304, 305, 297, 300, 378, 583 309, 316, 319, 330-340, 341, 348- copper and, 225, 226, 227, 234, 246 349, 350, 353, 355, 375-376, 573, and coronary heart disease, 359, 365, 699, 700, 702 368-369 adults, 16, 27, 56-57, 301, 316, 319, and cytochromes, 12, 291-292 340-344, 353, 355, 373-375, 694, data selection, 373, 375 699, 700, 703 deficiency, 108, 121, 226, 268, 284, adverse effects, 18, 290, 357-372 291, 293-300, 354, 355, 455 AIs, 18-19, 317 in developing countries, 351-352, 359, alcohol consumption and, 376 377, 378 and anemia, 12-13, 22, 44, 226, 295- and development delays, 295, 296-297, 299, 300, 301, 303, 305-306, 317, 300 352, 378, 583 distribution of requirements, 327-329, animal studies, 108, 121, 293, 296, 300 337-338, 348, 350, 559, 563, 569, ascorbic acid and, 292, 311-312, 313, 572, 573-574, 576, 699, 700 314, 315 dose-response assessment for ULs, 373- athletes, 295, 296, 300, 305, 352-353, 377 574 early deficiency, 301, 303-305, 306, 335 balance studies, 292, 308, 309-310, 314, EARs, 18-19, 323-324, 328, 329, 338- 378 339, 344, 349, 350 basal losses, 290, 295, 307-308, 320, enhancers of nonheme iron 322-323, 324, 325, 327, 329, 330, absorption, 311-312 331, 332, 337, 340, 341, 342, 343, and erythrocytes, 290, 301, 302, 304, 344-345, 347, 349, 569 305-306, 309, 313, 346, 347, 352 bioavailability, 4, 292, 311, 312-313, evidence considered in setting EAR, 314-316, 317, 322-323, 327, 337, 319-323, 324-329, 330-338, 340-348, 346-347, 349, 351, 355, 359, 378 349-350 biochemical indicators of deficiency, excretion, 21, 295, 307-309, 319, 322- 301-306, 572, 680-685 323, 352 blood donation and, 352, 574 exposure assessment, 377 body stores, 290, 291, 293, 294, 299, factorial modeling, 13, 41, 290, 307- 301-303, 306, 308, 311, 314, 316, 309, 319, 324, 330, 340-343, 344, 319, 321, 323, 324, 327, 330, 332, 347, 348, 569 341, 358-359, 365, 378 factors affecting requirement, 311-316 body weight and, 308, 322-323, 327, FAO/WHO values, 345 329, 331, 332, 333, 338, 340, 343, and ferritin, 21, 225, 291, 294, 299, 582 300, 301-303, 306, 307, 311, 313, calcium and, 313, 314 314, 315, 351, 352, 353-355, 357, and cancer, 302, 303, 370-372, 373 359, 365-367, 370, 371-372, 373, and cardiovascular disease, 359, 364- 377-378, 572, 684-685, 694, 696 371, 372, 373, 377-378 and ferroxidases, 225 and central nervous system processes, fetal, 290, 299, 300, 309, 316, 345-346, 297 347 cerruloplasmin and, 225, 293 and flavoproteins, 291 children, 108, 292, 297, 301, 309, 313, food composition data, 697-698 316, 319, 321, 322-323, 324-340, food sources, 312, 314, 355-356, 697-698 353-355, 357, 375-376, 698, 699, in formula, 234, 317, 322-323 701 in fortified foods, 355-356, 358, 378 and chromium, 200 functions, 12-13, 44, 290, 291-292, 300- citric acid and, 312, 357 301

INDEX 749 gastric acidity and, 292, 311 lactation, 318-319, 349-350, 375, 377, gastrointestinal effects, 290, 352, 358, 455 360-365, 373-377 lactic acid and, 312 gender and, 13, 56-57, 290-291, 304, and lactoferrin, 291 324, 333, 336, 338-339, 340-344, by life-stage group, 18-19, 27, 316-355, 354, 356, 359, 628-631, 650-651, 373-376, 628-631, 650-651, 664-665, 664-665, 676-677, 680-685, 694, 696, 676-677, 680-685, 696 702, 703 liver disease and, 370, 372, 376 growth velocity and, 290, 309, 317, malic acid and, 312 320, 324, 328, 331, 333, 338, 339, and manganese absorption, 395, 401, 573 402, 405, 409 hazard identification, 357-373 menstrual losses, 290, 291, 292, 295, heme, 291, 292, 293-294, 304, 311, 312, 301-302, 309, 330, 332, 334-337, 314, 315, 327, 356, 374, 455, 483 338, 339-340, 341-343, 350, 355, and heme-flavoproteins, 291 570-572, 700 hemochromatosis, 200, 358, 359, 370, metabolism, 225, 294, 521 372-373, 376, 378 method used to set AI, 316-317 and hemoglobin (hematocrit), 12, 22, method used to set EAR, 13, 18-19, 44, 290, 291, 292, 295, 299, 302, 290, 307-310, 314-316, 340-343, 569 303, 305, 306, 307, 308, 316, 319, methodological issues, 41, 307, 309 320-321, 322-323, 324, 325-326, 329, and mucosal integrity, 300 330, 331-333, 335, 336, 337-338, and myoglobin, 12, 44, 290, 291, 292, 342, 345-346, 349, 680-681 296, 333 and hemosiderin, 291, 294, 357 nickel and, 521 hormone replacement therapy and, NOAEL/LOAEL, 374, 375-376 350-351, 573 nonheme, 291, 292, 311-312, 313, 314, in human milk, 6, 51, 316-317, 318- 315, 351, 374, 375, 376, 455 319, 320, 322-323, 349, 697 oral contraceptives and, 334-335, 343, and immune response, 300, 302 350, 573, 700, 702, 703 indicators of adequacy, 18-19, 21, 300- oxidation states, 291 310, 311, 680-685 and pagophagia, 300 infants, 51, 234, 295, 296-297, 300, 312, physical exercise and endurance 316-324, 325, 353, 375-376, 378, training and, 295, 296, 300, 305, 573, 697, 701 352-353, 574 inhibitors of nonheme iron phytates and, 312-313, 314 absorption, 312-313 and pica, 300 intakes, 57, 290, 322-323, 352, 353-355, plasma glucose and, 302, 582 356, 377, 559, 628-631, 650-651, polyphenols and, 313, 314 664-665, 676-677, 696 pregnancy, 13, 22, 292, 295, 297-300, interaction with other nutrients, 108, 302, 304, 305, 309, 344-349, 356, 200, 225, 226, 227, 234, 246, 268, 375, 377, 378, 455, 573 284, 292, 304, 311-313, 314, 315, prevalence of inadequate intakes, 21, 357-358, 373, 401, 455, 458, 482- 22, 353-355, 570, 576 483, 521 probabilities of inadequate intakes, intervention studies, 108, 313 570-572, 576, 701-703 intestinal parasitic infection and, 351- and protoporphyrin, 291, 304, 306 352 race/ethnicity and, 302-303, 308, 694 and iodine, 268, 284 RDAs, 3-4, 18-19, 33-34, 290, 307, 324, and koilonychia, 300 328, 329, 339, 344, 349, 350, 569 laboratory measurements, 301-306 research recommendations, 377, 582, 583

750 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES and retinol, 108 K risk characterization, 377-378 secondary iron overload, 358-359, 372, Keratosis, 506, 508 373, 377, 378 Koilonychia, 300 sensitive subpopulations, 372-373, 377- Kwashiorkor, 119 378 serum concentration, 368-369, 371 special considerations, 317, 319, 339- L 340, 350-353, 376-377, 572, 573-574, Laboratory assays/values 576 analytical considerations, 46-47, 168, supplements, 56-57, 108, 121, 297, 300, 266 305, 313, 351, 352, 353, 356, 357, iodine, 261, 266, 583 360-363, 373, 377, 378, 401, 455 iron, 301-306 surrogate laboratory indicators, 306 methodological considerations, 46, tannic acid and, 312, 313 168, 169, 202, 211, 266, 306, 434, tissue content (nonstorage), 290, 291, 452, 583 295, 296, 306, 319, 321, 323, 324, surrogate indicators, 306 327, 329, 330, 332, 333-334, 349 vitamin K, 168 total iron-binding capacity, 303, 370- Lactation. See also Human milk; individual 371 nutrients and transferrin, 291, 293, 294, 302, and absorption efficiency, 244 303-304, 306, 357, 359, 368-369, basal losses of nutrients and, 349 370-371, 682-683 bioavailability of nutrients, 349 and transferrin receptors, 302, 304- derivation of DRIs for, 40-41, 54 305, 306 evidence considered in setting EAR, ULs, 2, 16, 18, 27, 290, 356-378, 562 117, 244, 349-350, 431 uncertainty assessment, 374, 376 and hemoglobin mass, 349 units, 709 method used to set AIs, 183-184, 210, validation of requirement estimates, 407 353-355 methodological considerations, 54 variability of requirements, 327-329, stage of, 50, 110-111, 206, 235-237, 337-338, 348, 350, 559, 563, 569, 269, 318-319, 403, 425, 459-461, 572, 573-574, 699, 700 478 vegetarianism and, 315, 351, 574 supplement use, 177 vitamin A and, 108, 118, 121 ULs, 145 and work performance, 295-296 variability of requirements, 350 and zinc absorption, 304, 357-358, 373, zinc, 452, 471, 474 455, 458, 482-483 Lactic acid, 312 Iron-binding proteins, 317 Lactoferrin, 291 Iron-deficient erythropoiesis, 301, 303- β-Lactoglobulin, 112 305, 306 Lead poisoning, 304 Iron response element (IRE), 293 Lean body mass, 69 Iron response proteins (IRP), 293, 294 Leukemia, 176, 188, 509 Iron-sulfur enzymes, 291, 292 Leukocyte copper concentration, 232 Ischemic heart disease, 228-229, 359 Leukopenia, 11, 227 Isotope dilution method, 103, 114 Lewis acid, 443 Life-stage group. See also Adolescents; Adults; Children; Infants; Lactation; J Pregnancy; individual nutrients Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Body Mass Index categories by, 41 Food Additives, 66 and derivation of DRIs, 36-41, 50-54

INDEX 751 and drinking water intakes, 642-643 extrapolation of NOAEL from, 143, and ferritin, 684-685, 695 144, 281, 374, 486 and hemoglobin, 680-681 identification of, 76-77, 133, 138, 143- intakes of nutrients by, 8-27, 354, 594- 144, 249, 281, 374, 375-376, 412, 641, 644-653, 654-673, 674-679 436, 485-486 and iodine excretion, 690-691 used instead of NOAEL, 78, 143-144 and plasma glucose, 695 uncertainty factors, 77 reference weights and heights by, 41 vitamin A and retinol, 686-687, 692-693 Lung cancer, 507 and retinyl esters, 688-689 Lutein, 109, 123, 602-603 serum values of biochemical Lycopene, 84, 109, 123, 604-605 indicators, 680-689, 695 T-Lymphocyte development and supplement use by, 612-613, 620-621, activation, 443 626-627, 632-637, 693 Lymphocyte 5′-nucleotidase activity, 453, and transferrin, 682-683 473-474 ULs by, 26-27, 69, 73 Lymphocytic thyroiditis, 283 Linamarin, 267 Lysine, 225 Lipid metabolism, 13, 44, 394, 396, 532 Lysyl oxidase activity, 225, 232 Lipid peroxidation, 357 Lipiodol, 259 Lipoproteins, 482 M Liver disease/abnormalities and arginase activity, 401 α-2-Macroglobulin, 395, 421, 446 arsenic and, 506, 507 Magnesium trisilicate, 531 Malabsorption syndromes, 164, 180, 445 cancer, 372, 507 ceruloplasmin and, 230 and vitamin A, 107, 118-119 children, 250 and vitamin K, 174, 180 and zinc, 445, 446, 457 chromium and, 214-215 choleostatic, 396 Malic acid and, 312 cirrhosis, 248, 251, 370, 372, 376, 409 Malnutrition, 30. See also Protein energy malnutrition copper and, 224, 248, 249, 251 Indian childhood cirrhosis, 248, 251 and blackfoot disease, 506 infants, 396 children, 97, 270, 454 chromium and, 198 iron overload and, 370, 372, 376 manganese and, 395-396, 401, 409, 414 and creatinine excretion, 263 menadione and, 187 and hypoptothrombinemia, 164 infants, 198 serum ferritin and, 302 vanadium and, 535 iodine and, 270 vitamin A and, 109, 125, 129, 132-133, and triiodothyronine concentrations, 267 134-139, 142, 145 Liver function, aging and, 69 vitamin A deficiency and, 97, 99, 145 Lou Gehrig’s disease, see Amyotrophic wasting, 97 Mammary dysplasia, 258-259 lateral sclerosis Low-density lipoproteins, 93-94 Manganese Low-fat diets, 106-107 absorption and transport, 395, 401- 402, 404, 409 Low-molecular weight chromium-binding substance (LMWCr), 198, 199 adolescents, 397, 404-405, 406-407, Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level 413, 414 adults, 16, 27, 56-57, 398-399, 405-406, (LOAEL) defined, 66, 706 411, 412-413 adverse effects, 18, 395, 409-411

752 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES AIs, 14, 20-21, 404, 405, 407, 558, 561, lactation, 407, 413, 414 562-563, 564 by life-stage group, 20-21, 27, 402-407, and amino acid metabolism, 13, 394 412-414, 632-633, 666-667 animal studies, 396, 401, 406, 409-411 and lipid metabolism, 13, 394, 396 and arginase activity, 394, 401 liver disease and, 395-396, 401, 409, balance studies, 395, 397-399, 404-406 414 bioavailability, 401-402, 411, 414 metabolism, 395 blood concentration, 400, 401, 409 metalloenzymes, 394, 401 and bone formation, 13, 44, 394, 396 method used to set AI, 13, 54, 402-407 calcium and, 401 methodological considerations, 54, 397 and carbohydrate metabolism, 13, 394, neurotoxicity, 409-411 396 NOAEL/LOAEL, 412 children, 404-405, 413 and osteoporosis, 396 and cholesterol, 396, 410-411 phytate and, 402 in cow milk, 404 pregnancy, 54, 406-407, 413, 414 data selection, 412 prevalence of inadequacy, 561 deficiency, 396 and reproductive function, 396 depletion/repletion studies, 396, 397, research recommendations, 414 399, 400 risk characterization, 414 dietary protein and, 397, 401 serum/plasma concentrations, 395- dose-response assessment for ULs, 412- 396, 399-400, 409 414 special considerations, 404, 414 in drinking water, 410, 411, 414 and superoxide dismutase activity, 225, and estrous cycle, 396 394, 401, 412, 414 excretion, 395-396, 397, 400-401 supplements, 56-57, 395, 399, 401, 408, exposure assessment, 414 409, 412, 414, 632-633 factorial analysis, 397 transferrin and, 395, 409 factors affecting requirement, 401-402 transferrin receptor density and, 409, ferritin and, 395, 401, 402, 405 411 fetal, 406, 411 ULs, 2, 16, 18, 27, 394, 408-414, 562 food sources, 407-408 uncertainty assessment, 412 in formula, 397, 402, 404 units, 709 function, 13, 44, 394 vegetarian diets, 408, 412, 414 gender and, 20-21, 56-57, 394, 395, vitamin K deficiency and, 396 401, 402, 405, 406, 408, 632-633, Marasmus, 119 666-667 Market Basker Surveys, 56 and glucose tolerance, 396 Market Research Corporation of America, and growth, 396 186 hazard identification, 409-412 Matrix Gla protein, 163, 173 human ecological studies, 411 Maximum contaminant levels, 508, 509 in human milk, 402, 403, 404, 407 Measles, 96, 97 indicators of adequacy, 13-14, 20-21, Melanin formation, 44, 225 397-401, 414 Men. See also Gender infants, 395-396, 402-404, 411, 413 basal losses of nutrients, 340 intakes, 13-14, 57, 394, 397, 405, 406, boron, 511 407, 408, 414, 632-633, 666-667 cancer risk, 370-371, 377 interaction with other nutrients, 395, cardiovascular risk, 377-378 396, 387, 401-402 copper, 228, 240, 245, 246, 251 interindividual variation in absorption, follicular hyperkeratosis, 96 397, 402 HDL concentrations, 482 iron status and, 395, 401, 402, 405, 409 hemoglobin concentrations, 305

INDEX 753 iodine, 278, 281 level of intake and, 445 iron, 290-291, 340-341, 699, 703 lipid metabolism, 13, 44, 394, 396, 532 manganese, 399-400, 414 methionine, 45, 509 molybdenum, 423, 424, 428 thyroid, 268 provitamin A carotenoids, 118, 123 tryptopham, 458 serum transferrin, 304, 370-371 vitamin D, 45, 510-511, 520 vitamin K, 186 Metal response element transcription zinc, 473-474, 480-481, 482, 488 factor (MTF1), 443 Menadione, 162, 164, 187 Metalloenzymes Menaquinones copper, 11, 44, 224-226, 456 absorption, 164 manganese, 44, 394, 401 and bone mineral density, 170, 172 zinc, 443 in cow milk, 179-180 Metallothionein, 234, 443, 444, 453, 456, hazard identification, 187 473 interactions with drugs, 164 Metallothionein gene, 444 MK-4, 162, 164, 172, 179-180 Methionine, 45, 422, 423, 509, 521 and osteoporosis, 170, 172 Methodological considerations serum/plasma concentrations, 166 AIs, 50-52 sources, 162, 164, 186 animal studies, 45, 71, 246, 279, 517, structure, 162 712 Menke’s disease, 226, 232, 488 balance studies, 45, 46, 233, 265, 274, Menstrual cycle 309, 397 adolescents, 332, 334-337, 338 bioconversion of carotenoids to age of menarche, 339-340, 573 vitamin A, 2, 82-83, 86-93, 565 iron losses, 290, 291, 292, 295, 301-302, biomarkers, 47 309, 330, 332, 334-337, 338, 339- boron, 517 340, 341-343, 350, 355, 570-572, children, 32, 39, 51-52, 53, 112, 180 700 chromium, 25, 51-52, 54, 202, 211, manganese and, 396 212, 214, 583 pain and mood changes, 396 comparability of studies, 169-170 zinc losses, 446, 448, 469, 471-472 confounding of nutrients, 23-24, 47-48, Mental retardation, 261-262 106, 143, 171, 214 Messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA), 293, copper, 51-52, 232, 246, 247 444 data limitations, 2, 7, 8, 32, 39, 48-49, Metabolic weight ratio method, 53, 112, 173 238, 272, 426, 427 depletion/repletion studies, 45, 46 Metabolism. See also individual nutrients dietary intakes, 47, 54-58, 166, 182, amino acid, 13, 44, 204, 394, 420-421 186, 208, 209, 212, 432, 466, 556, basal rate considerations, 32-33 559, 572, 583 bone, 10, 23-24, 162, 169, 170, 172, EARs, 32-34, 49, 51-53 189, 229, 583-584 epidemiological studies, 46 carbohydrates, 13, 44, 201, 204, 394, in extrapolation of data, 49, 51-53 396, 444 food composition data, 569, 583 catecholamines, 225, 229 food sources, 58 collagen metabolism, 45, 225, 529, 530 generalizability of results, 46, 48, 172 compartmental model, 535 human studies, 45-46, 50, 67-68, 247 energy, 40, 54 immune function tests, 106 ethanol, 475 infants, 38, 50-51, 53, 110-111 glucose, 521, 532 intervention trials, 48 hormone, 443, 444, 454, 532 iodine, 51-52, 265, 274, 284 inborn errors of, 421 iron, 41, 307, 309

754 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES kinetic modeling of body pools, 446, deficiency, 420-422, 424 582 depletion/repletion studies, 430 laboratory assays, 46, 168, 169, 202, dose-response assessment for ULs, 436- 211, 266, 306, 434, 452, 583 438 lactation, 54 in drinking water, 434-435 manganese, 54, 397 EARs, 427, 430, 431 measurement errors, 47 energy expenditure and, 427 molybdenum, 51-52, 54, 432, 434 enzyme cofactor deficiency, 14, 420, nickel, 526 423, 424 nutrient intake estimates, 47, 54-55, in erythrocytes, 421 556-557, 583 evidence considered in setting EAR, nutrient-nutrient interactions, 47, 106, 427, 428-431 143, 171, 214 excretion, 421, 422-423, 429, 435 observational studies, 45, 46-48 exposure assessment, 439 pregnancy, 53-54 factors affecting requirement, 424-425 randomized clinical trials, 45, 47-48 fetal, 436 in risk assessment, 46-47 food sources, 424-425, 432 sample size, 127, 434 in formula, 425 standardization of tests, 106, 266, 284, function, 14, 44, 420-421 583 gender and, 22-23, 424, 432, 632-633 types of data used, 45-49 and growth depression, 433, 435 vitamin A, 51-52, 106, 127, 143 hazard identification, 433-436 vitamin K, 23-24, 166, 168, 169, 171, and hemoglobin, 435 172, 184, 186 in human milk, 425, 426, 431 weighing the evidence, 48-49 human studies, 434 zinc, 452, 476 indicators of adequacy, 14, 22-23, 422- 2-Methyl-1,4-naphthoquinones, 162 423 Methyltransferase activity, 506 infants, 425-427, 437, 438 Mevilonin, 411 intakes, 420, 432, 439, 632-633 Miliaria crystallina, 396 interactions, 246, 424, 433, 434 Modified relative dose response test, 104 lactation, 425, 426, 431-432, 438 Molybdenum by life-stage group, 22-23, 27, 425-432, absorption and transport, 421, 424 436-438, 632-633 adolescents, 427-428, 430-432, 437-438 metabolism, 421 adults, 16, 27, 420, 424, 428-430, 436- method used to set AI, 51-52, 54, 425- 437 426 adverse effects, 18, 433-436 method used to set EAR, 14, 22-23 AIs, 427 methodological considerations, 51-52, and amino acid metabolism, 420-421 54, 432, 434 and anemia, 433 and neurological abnormalities, 14, animal studies, 421, 424, 433, 435, 436 421, 422 balance studies, 14, 420, 423, 428-429 NOAEL/LOAEL, 436 bioavailability, 420, 424-425, 427, 429, plasma/serum concentrations, 422 435, 439 pregnancy, 54, 430-431, 438 biochemical indicators, 423 RDAs, 2, 14, 22-23, 420, 427-428, 430, blood levels, 421, 434 431-432 and cancer, 435 and renal failure, 433-434 children, 51-52, 423, 427-428, 437-438 reproductive effects, 420, 433, 434-435, and copper metabolism, 246, 424, 433, 436, 438 434, 435, 436, 437, 438 research recommendations, 439 data selection, 436 risk characterization, 439

INDEX 755 and skeletal deformities, 433, 435 energy intakes, 11 special considerations, 427, 438 ferritin concentrations, 684-685, 694, and sulfur, 434 695, 696 supplements, 57, 432, 434, 439, 632-633 glucose, 201, 695 and thyroid injury, 433 hemoglobin concentrations, 305, 680- toxicokinetics, 435 681 tungsten and, 424 iodine, 261, 263, 278, 626-627, 690-691 ULs, 2, 16, 18, 27, 420, 433-439, 562 iron, 51, 56, 354, 373, 377, 628-631, uncertainty assessment, 436 680-685, 696 units, 709 manganese, 408, 414, 632-633 and uric acid in plasma and urine, molybdenum, 432, 439, 632-633 422, 423, 434, 437 nickel, 523, 634-635 Molybdopterin, 420 retinol, 606-607, 686-687, 692-693 Monoamine oxidase (MAO), 225 retinyl esters, 688-689 Monoamine oxidase (MAO) inhibitors, 225 serum values of nutrients, 302-303, Monocyte metallotionein messenger RNA, 354, 373 444, 453 silicon, 531, 634-635 Monoiodotyrosine, 260 supplement data, 57, 125, 212-213, Monomethylarsonic acid, 504 216, 246, 278, 408, 414, 432, 439, Mortality from infectious diseases, 96 488, 523, 612-613, 620-621, 626-627, MTF1 binding, 443 632-633, 693 Mucosal integrity, 300 thyroid monitoring in children, 284 Muscle protein catabolism, 446 total intakes, 377, 616-617, 624-625, Mutations 630-631 of copper-transporting ATPase, 227 transferrin concentrations, 682-683 in Cu/Zn SOD gene, 225-226 vanadium, 534, 636-637 in MNK gene, 226 vitamin A, 21, 51, 56, 111, 122-123, Myelin, 44 125, 145, 608-613, 686-689, 692-693 Myelination of nerve fibers, 297 vitamin K, 56, 180, 181, 182, 183, 186, Myeloperoxidase, 259 566, 614-617 Myocardial infarction, 228, 230, 359, 365, water intakes, 247, 642-643 372 zinc, 51, 56, 463, 481, 485, 488, 559, Myoglobin, 12, 44, 290, 291, 292, 296, 333 561-562, 575, 638-641 National Health Interview Survey, 56-57 National Nutrition Monitoring System, 554 N National Research Council, risk assessment model, 63-64, 712 National Health and Nutrition Natural resistance associated macrophage Examination Survey I (NHANES I), protein (NRAMP2), 293, 294 263 Negative acute phase proteins, 99 National Health and Nutrition Neurological abnormalities, 14, 44, 201, Examination Survey III (NHANES 252, 261-262, 409-411, 421, 422, III) 506-507, 538; see also Central anthropometric data, 41, 302, 341, nervous system 343, 694 Neutropenia, 11, 227, 228 biochemical indicators, 680-691 Nickel boron, 56, 512, 513, 618-621 absorption and transport, 521-522 carotenoids, 123, 566, 594-605 acute effects, 524 chromium, 212-213, 216, 561, 620-621 adolescents, 523, 527, 528 copper data, 51, 56, 235, 237 adults, 16, 27, 523, 525-527 defined, 55, 707 adverse effects, 18, 524-525 design, 55

756 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES animal studies, 524, 525, 526 No-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level and body weight, 525 (NOAEL). See also individual children, 523, 527, 528 nutrients data selection, 525 defined, 66, 707 dose-response assessment for ULs, 525- extrapolation from LOAEL, 143, 144, 528 281, 374, 486 in drinking water, 524, 528 identification of, 76-77, 133, 138, 143- DRIs, 2, 6, 522, 576 144, 249, 281, 374, 375-376, 412, elderly people, 523 436, 484-486 excretion, 521-522 LOAEL used instead of, 78, 143-144 exposure assessment, 528 pregnant women, 374 fetotoxicity, 524, 526 sensitive subpopulations and, 144 food sources, 522-523 subchronic to predict chronic, 78 functions, 45, 521, 529 uncertainty factors, 77, 78, 374 gender and, 634-635, 668-669 Nonheme enzymes, 291, 292, 311-312, and glucose metabolism, 521 313, 314, 315, 351, 374, 375, 376, and growth retardation, 521 455 hazard identification, 524-525 Norepinephrine, 225, 410 in hemoglobin, 521 Normative requirement, 22 in human milk, 523 Nova Scotia Heart Health Study, 674-679 human studies, 524 Nurse’s Health Study, 171 hypersensitivity to, 524, 526, 528 Nutrient intakes. See also Dietary intakes; infants, 523, 527 individual nutrients intakes, 57, 522, 523, 528, 634-635, boron, 55-56 668-669 Canadian, 56, 57, 212, 356, 674-679 interactions with other nutrients, 521, chronic, 79-80 529 day-to-day variation adjustments, 55, iron and, 521 56, 123, 186, 556, 559 lactation, 526, 527, 528 in drinking water, 560 by life-stage group, 27, 522, 525-528, extrapolation from subchronic to 634-635, 668-669 chronic, 78 metabolism, 521-522 extrapolation from urinary losses, 264, methodological issues, 526 272 NOAEL/LOAEL, 525-526 form of, 68, 73 n.2 pregnancy, 526, 527, 528, 529 health effects as a function of, 76-77 reproductive effects, 524, 525-526 interindividual variability in, 69, 77-78, research recommendations, 28, 529, 139, 143, 144, 397, 402, 559 583 interpretation of, 68, 564-565 risk characterization, 528 methodological considerations, 47, 54- special considerations, 528 55, 556-557, 583 supplements, 57, 523, 528, 634-635 prevalence of inadequate intakes, 21, toxic forms of, 524, 525 22, 353-355, 558-559, 560-561, 563, ULs, 16, 18, 27, 523-528, 576 564 uncertainty assessment, 526 public health implications, 79-80 units, 709 quality of data, 54, 556, 560-561 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide from supplements, 57-58, 68, 79, 612- hydride, 292 613, 626-627, 632-637 Night blindness, 10, 82, 95, 97-99, 100- total calculated, 68, 616-617, 624-625, 102, 119, 422 630-631, 640-641 U.S., 356, 467, 594-641, 644-649, 654- 673

INDEX 757 Nutrient-nutrient interactions. See also intakes, 181-182, 186 specific entries under individual metabolism, 164 nutrients oral vs intramuscular treatment, 176- adverse effects, 61, 72, 129, 358, 482-483 177 and absorption, 70, 106-107, 118, 121, and osteoporosis, 23, 170, 172 163, 311-312, 455-456, 482-483 structure, 162 and bioavailability of nutrients, 70, α-tocopherol and, 175-176 108, 173-174, 292, 311-312, 313, Physical exercise, 40 314, 315, 582-583 and chromium, 199, 207, 215 methodological issues, 47, 106, 143, elderly people, 40 171, 214 iron requirements, 295, 296, 300, 305, Nutrition Canada Survey, 41, 42, 331 352-353, 574 and vitamin A, 127 Phytic acid/phytates O and absorption of nutrients, 572, 576 and chromium, 204 Observational studies and iron, 312-313, 314 hazard identification, 71 and manganese, 402 methodological issues, 45, 46-48 processing of foods and, 457 uses, 71 and zinc, 444, 451, 452, 456, 457-458, Oral contraceptives, 230 479, 480, 572, 576 adolescents, 335, 336, 350, 700, 702 Pica, 300 and iron, 334-335, 343, 350, 573, 700, Picolinic complexes, 458 702, 703 Plasma. See also individual nutrients Osteocalcin, 23, 163, 168-171, 172, 173, 189 amino acids, 446 Osteoporosis, 23-24, 126, 170-173, 227, 396 cholesterol, 396 Oxalates, 204 ferritin, 395, 405 Oxidative stress, 231, 489 glucose, 302, 582, 695 methionine, 423 phylloquinone, 166 P urea and uric acid, 422, 423, 434, 437, Pagophagia, 300 535, 540 Parakeratosis, 455 Plasmodium falciparum malaria, 96 Parathyroid hormone, 172 Platelet copper concentration, 224, 230, Parenchymal cells, 372 231, 239-240 Parkinson’s disease, 409, 411 Polyglutamate hydrolase, 456 Pasturization, 112 Polyphenols, 313, 314 Peptidyl glycine α-amidating Pre-albumin, 454, 473 monooxygenase activity, 225, 232 Pregnancy. See also Lactation; individual Peripheral neuropathy, 201, 506-507 nutrients Phosphocreatine, 296 and absorption efficiency, 243 Phosphoenolpyruvate decarboxylase, 394 animal studies, 406 Phosphorus, 455-456, 457 balance studies, 274, 275 Photo cycle, 85 basal nutrient losses, 344-345, 347, 348 Phylloquinones and bioavailability of nutrients, 346-347 absorption, 163, 175-176 and ceruloplasmin concentrations, 230 aging and, 166 derivation of DRIs for, 40-41, 53-54 bioavailability, 568 eclampsia, 299 defined, 707 evidence considered in setting EAR, food sources, 173, 184-185 116, 243, 275-276, 344-348, 430-431 human feeding studies, 164-165 factorial approach, 476

758 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES goiter, 276 Prothrombin hemoglobin concentrations, 305, 345- in newborns, 177 346, 348 time, 163, 164, 165-166 hypertension, 299 undercarboxylated, 163, 167-168, 176, iron deficiency anemia, 297-299 177, 181-182 maternal mortality, 297 vitamin E and, 175 method used to set AIs, 182-183, 209- vitamin K and, 163, 164, 165-168, 175, 210, 406-407 176, 177, 181-182 methodological considerations, 53-54 Protoporphyrin, 291, 304, 306 obligatory fetal transfer, 53-54 Provitamin A carotenoids. See also periconceptional nutrient intakes, 129 β-Carotene; other individual perinatal infant mortality, 297, 299 carotenoids placental transport of nutrients, 226, absorption, 86-93, 107 345-346, 347 activity, 2 premature labor, 299 bioavailability, 107 preterm delivery, 297, 298, 476, 483 bioconversion to vitamin A, 2, 10, 86- and serum transferrin, 304 93, 94, 111, 117, 564, 576, 582 special considerations, 573 blood concentrations, 83, 90-91, 103, supplements, 183, 275-276, 345, 476 107, 118 ULs, 69, 145, 374 and chronic disease, 118 variability of requirements, 348 dietary fat and, 106-107 weight gain during, 54, 210, 298, 407, food composition data, 83, 564 430, 518 food sources, 82, 83, 84, 118, 119 Prevalence of inadequate intakes, 21, 22, forms, 83, 707 353-355, 561, 566-567, 570, 576 functions, 86 Probabilities of inadequate intakes, 570- gender differences, 594-601 572, 576, 701-703 in human milk, 111, 117 Processed foods, 87, 107, 111, 112, 146, intakes, 82, 118, 123, 127, 594-601 174, 184-186, 211, 277, 313, 480, intervention trials, 119, 121 530, 533 by life-stage group, 594-601 Prolactin, 266 RAEs, 10, 82, 87-93 Prolylhydrolase activity, 529 research recommendations, 582 Prostaglandin inhibitors, 204 structure, 83-84 Protein, dietary supplements, 126 and arginase activity, 401 Pubertal development, 39, 42, 316, 330, and copper homeostasis, 246-247 477, 573 and manganese, 397, 401 Pupillary response test, 98-99 requirements, 52, 54 Pyruvate carboxylate, 394 vegetable, 313 and zinc, 457, 458 Protein energy malnutrition R and vitamin A, 97, 99, 104, 106, 108, Race/ethnicity 118, 119, 145 and zinc, 108 and dietary intake data, 47 Protein induced by vitamin K absence/ and ferritin, 694 and iron, 302-303, 308, 694 antagonism (PIVKA), 167-168, 176, 181-182 and puberty onset, 39 Protein kinase C activity, 444 and reproductive outcomes, 476-477 Radiocontrast media, 259, 268, 273 Proteinuria, 434 Proteoglycan synthesis, 394 Radiotracer methods vitamin A, 94, 95, 103, 114 zinc, 357-358, 455, 472, 489

INDEX 759 Reactive oxygen species, 507 Research recommendations. See also Recommended Dietary Allowances individual nutrients (RDAs). See also individual nutrients approach to setting, 580-581 AI compared, 4, 6, 31, 35 dietary intakes, 583-584 appropropriateness of intakes above, functional and biochemical endpoints, 77 27, 488-489 children, 52 gender issues, 582 coefficient of variation, 3, 32-33, 52 interactions, 27, 582-583 criteria used to derive, 7, 8-9, 30 nonnutritional influences on defined, 3, 6, 8, 30-31, 32 bioindicators, 28, 582 EAR and, 2, 6, 31, 32-34, 35 pregnancy-related requirements, 582 group applications, 20, 554, 561 priorities, 26-28, 584-585 individual applications, 554, 555-557, Retinitis pigmentosis, 146 562 Retinoic acid receptors, 443 infants, 6, 37 Retinoids method used to set, 2-4, 31, 32-34, 35, defined, 83 52 vitamin K and, 176 transition to DRIs, 554-555 Retinol uses, 1, 4, 5, 31, 554, 555-557, 561, 562, gender and, 686-687, 692-693 577 intakes, 99, 102-103, 104, 105, 106-107, Reference weights and heights, 41-42, 52, 112, 124, 565, 606-607, 686-687, 114, 210, 329, 338, 468 692-693, 709 Relative dose response test, 103-104, 105 international units, 565-566 Renal diseases/failure iron and, 108 aging and, 40, 69 plasma/serum concentration, 99, 102- cancer, 507 103, 104, 105, 106-107, 112 chromium and, 213, 215 Retinol activity equivalents (RAEs) copper and, 227 calculation, 565 molybdenum and, 433-434 and dietary intake changes, 123, 568, silicon and, 529 610-611 vanadium and, 535-536, 538-539, 540, rationale for developing, 82, 87-93 541 REs for provitamin A carotenoids Reproductive effects. See also Pregnancy compared, 10, 564 animal studies, 406, 434-435 Retinol-binding protein, 93, 99, 108, 112, boron, 512, 514-517 119, 454, 473 chromium, 215 Retinol equivalents copper, 248 vitamin A intakes by, 564, 608-609 impotence, 372, 477 Retinyl esters, 83, 87, 90-91, 93, 94, 125, iodine, 261, 262 688-689 iron deficiency anemia, 295, 297-298 Rhabdomyolysis, 215 manganese, 396 Rhodopsin, 85, 95, 97, 108-109 molybdenum, 420, 433, 434-435, 436, Risk assessment models. See also Dose- 438 response assessment for ULs; nickel, 524, 525-526 Exposure assessment; Hazard spontaneous abortions, 248 identification; Risk characterization testicular atrophy, 515, 515-517 application to nutrients, 67-71 vanadium, 532, 537 basic concepts, 16, 62-63 vitamin A-related risks, 10, 82, 130-131, bioavailability considerations, 69-70, 75 133, 138-139 case-by-case judgments, 712, 713 zinc, 444, 447, 476, 483 default options, 712 Requirement, defined, 29, 30 defined, 62, 707

760 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES EPA guidelines, 712 TSH, 265, 266, 276, 279, 281 and food safety, 62-67 urea and creatinine, 535, 540 inference options, 63, 66, 710, 712-713 uric acid, 422, 423, 434 methodological considerations, 46-47 Short bowel syndrome, 446 nutrient interactions, 70 Silicon process, 63-65 absorption and transport, 529 sensitivity of individuals, 69 and atherogenesis, 529 special problems with nutrients, 67-68 bioavailability, 530 thresholds, 65-67, 711 and bone formation, 45, 529, 530 uncertainties, 63, 65, 67, 710-713 carcinogenicity, 531 Risk characterization. See also individual and collagen formation, 529, 530 nutrients dietary fiber and, 530 chromium, 216 dose-response assessment for ULs, 531- defined, 64, 79, 707 532 process, 64, 65, 79-80 DRIs, 1, 6, 7, 36, 76, 78, 530, 576 uncertainties in, 710 elderly people, 532 Risk management, 63, 65, 79-80, 707-708, excretion, 529-530 713 food sources, 530 RNA polymerases, 443 function, 45, 529 gender and, 530, 634-635, 670-671 hazard identification, 531 S in human milk, 530 infants, 530 Seasonal variation, in thyrotoxicosis, 280 intakes, 57, 530-531, 634-635, 670-671 Selenium deficiency, 260, 268, 284 interactions with other nutrients, 530 Sensitive subpopulations, 61, 66, 69. See by life-stage group, 530, 634-635, 670- also Special considerations 671 chromium, 215 metabolism, 529 identification of, 74-75, 79 and renal failure, 529 iron, 372-373, 377-378 research recommendations, 28, 532, Sensitivity to nutrients. See also 583 Hypersensitivity to nutrients; serum concentrations, 529 Special considerations supplements, 57, 531, 634-635 dermal, 524 ULs, 18, 531-532 interindividual variability, 69, 77-78, units, 709 139, 143, 144 and urolithiasis, 531 interspecies variability, 246 Simulator of iron transport (SFT), 294 Serotonin, 410 Skin Serum. See also individual nutrients cancer, 507-508 ceruloplasmin, 239-240 lysyl oxidase activity, 232 diamine oxidase activity, 232-233 pigmentation, 506, 507-508 ferritin, 21, 299, 301-303, 306, 311, Sp1, 443 313, 314, 315, 351, 352, 353-354, Special considerations 359, 365-367, 370, 373, 395, 402, adolescents, 330, 339-340, 358, 573 572, 684-685, 694, 695, 696 age of menarche, 339-340, 573 IGF-1, 474 alcohol consumption, 118, 145, 376- lipoprotein, 482 377, 480 retinol, 686-687 athletes, 574 retinyl esters, 688-689 autoimmune thyroid disease, 283 thyroglobulin, 266-267, 276 blood donation, 352, 574 thyroptropin, 258 chromium, 207 transferrin, 303-304, 370, 682-683

INDEX 761 copper, 238, 251, 438 Superoxide dismutase cow milk, 112, 179-180, 207, 238, 270, alcohol consumption and, 231, 401 317, 404, 427, 462 antioxidant activity, 225-226 developing countries, 118-122, 377 cupro/zine, 224, 225-226, 229, 231, diarrhea, 118-119 239-240, 442, 443, 453, 482, 483 drinking-water levels of nutrients, 414 mangano, 225, 394, 401, 412, 414 drug interactions, 121 Supplements. See also individual nutrients elderly people, 479-480 bioavailability of nutrients, 30, 70, 88- growth spurts, 339, 573 89, 173-174, 568 hemochromatosis, 376-377 body-building, 520 hormone replacement therapy, 350- children, 96, 465-466 351, 573 composition data, 560 hyperlipidemia, 145 data sources on intakes, 57-58, 125, hypersensitivity to nutrient, 528 246 identification of, 30 form of nutrient in, 375, 568 idiopathic copper toxicosis, 251 gender differences, 56-57, 187, 246, Indian childhood cirrhosis, 251 278, 488, 612-613 infant formula, 179-180, 207, 238, 270, intakes from, 57, 65, 125, 187, 212-213, 317, 404, 427, 462 216, 246, 278, 356, 408, 414, 432, infants, 179-180, 238, 317, 573 439, 481, 488, 513, 520, 523, 575, intestinal parasites, 118-119, 351-352 612-613, 620-621, 626-627, 632-633, iodine, 270, 278, 283 693 iron, 121, 317, 339-340, 350-353, 376- intervention trials, 48 377, 572, 573-574 multivitamin/mineral, 401, 557, 575 kidney dysfunction, 528 sustained release, 375 lactation, 121 therapeutic doses, 95-96, 145 liver disease, 145, 376-377, 414 ULs and, 65, 79, 145 manganese, 404, 414 usage, 56-58, 246, 278, 481, 612-613 Menke’s disease, 488 molybdenum, 427, 438 nickel, 528 T nutrient interactions, 438, 480 oral contraceptives, 350, 573 Tannic acid, 312, 313 Temperature regulation, 300 parasites and infections, 118-119, 121 physical exercise/endurance training, Teratogenicity 352-353 arsenic, 507 vitamin A, 128-133 in pregnancy, 573 protein energy malnutrition, 119, 145 zinc and, 444 supplement use, 377, 414 Testicular atrophy, 515-517 Testosterone, 454 ULs, 145, 488 vegetarian diets, 118, 119, 120, 351, Tetraiodotyrosine, 260 414, 479-480, 574 Thalassemias, 306, 377 Thiocyanate, 267 vitamin A, 112, 118-122, 145 vitamin K, 179-180 Thyroglobulin, 259-260, 264, 266-267, 276 Wilson’s disease, 251, 488 Thyroid gland cancer, 262, 280, 284 zinc, 462, 479-480, 487 Sprue, 446 iodine accumulation and turnover, Stomach cancer, 214, 372 262-263, 273-274 iodine transport, 259 Stress response, 444, 445, 489 Sulfite oxidase, 420, 421, 422 molybdenum and, 433 Sulfur, 434 monitoring in children, 284 newborns, 275

762 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES nickel stores, 522 development steps, 71-79 size, 259, 264-265, 275-276, 279-280, fortification of foods and, 7, 36, 61, 68, 284; see also Goiter 575 Thyroid hormones. See also Iodine; specific group applications, 554, 561-562, 563- hormones 564 absorption, 259 individual applications, 558 goitrogens and, 267 by life-stage groups, 69 and iodine deficiency disorders, 261 pregnancy and lactation, 139, 142 and metabolism, 268, 272 prevalence of intakes above, 562 radiocontrast media and, 268 supplement use and, 7, 36, 61, 68, 79, secretion measurements, 274 143, 145, 562, 575 selenium deficiency and, 260 uses, 5, 7, 35-36, 61, 554, 558, 561-562, synthesis, 259 563-564 zinc and, 454, 473 Total Diet Study Thyroid stimulating hormone arsenic, 57, 658-659 (thyrotropin, TSH), 258, 260, 264, copper, 57, 660-661 265, 266, 268, 276, 279, 280, 281, description of, 56 707 iodine, 57, 283-284, 662-663 Thyroiditis, 263, 279, 283 iron, 57, 664-665 Thyroperoxidase, 260, 532 manganese, 57, 394, 404, 405, 406, Thyrotoxicosis, 280 407, 408, 414, 666-667 Thyrotropin. See Thyroid stimulating molybdenum, 432 hormone (TSH) nickel, 57, 523, 668-669 Thyroxine, 258, 267, 454, 473 silicon, 57, 530, 670-671 Thyroxine-binding globulin, 260 vanadium, 533 Tissue cultures vitamin K, 57, 178, 183, 185, 654-657 menaquinone, 162 zinc, 57, 672-673 α-Tocopherol, 175 Total parenteral nutrition (TPN), 198, α-Tocopherol quinone, 175 200-201, 227, 241, 396, 409, 421, 422 Toddlers, ages 1 through 3 years, 21, 39, Transcription factors, 44 112, 121, 122, 180, 238, 270, 272, Transferrin, 199-200 313, 321, 404 gender and, 682-683 Tolerable, defined, 7, 35, 60 iron and, 291, 293, 294, 302, 303-304, Tolerable Upper Intake Levels. See also 306, 357, 359, 368-369, 370-371, Dose-response assessment; Hazard 682-683 identification; Risk assessment manganese and, 395, 409 models; individual nutrients vanadium and, 533 adolescents, 142, 145 Transferrin receptors, 294 adults, 16, 26-27, 53 and cancer, 304, 370 appropropriateness of intakes above, density and, 409, 411 17-18, 36, 60, 61, 125, 145-146, 246, iron and, 302, 304-305, 306 278, 284, 356, 408, 433, 513, 523- manganese and, 409, 411 524, 531, 534, 542 Transthyretin, 93, 99, 260 children, 42, 53 Triglycerides, 86, 166, 510 critical endpoints, 7-8, 70 Triiodothyronine, 258, 260, 267 defined, 3, 6, 7, 35, 60, 68, 125, 213, 246, Trimethylated arsenic, 504 356, 408, 433, 513, 523, 531, 534 Tryptopham, 458 derivation of, 35, 42, 53, 62, 67-70, 75, TSH-releasing hormone, 279 78-79, 126, 139, 143, 144, 250, 282, Tungsten, 424 373, 374, 376, 412, 437, 486, 488, Tyrosinase, 225 518 Tyrosine kinase activity, 25, 198, 443

INDEX 763 U U.S. Department of Agriculture, 55, 278, 329, 504 Ubiquinone, 292 U.S. Department of Health and Human Ultrasonography, 265, 275, 284 Services, 55 Uncertainty U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in animal studies, 63, 78, 436, 540, (EPA), 251, 538 710, 711 assessment, 76, 77-78, 139, 143, 144, 249, 281, 374, 376, 412, 436, 486- V 487, 710, 711 in dietary assessment methods, 567 Vanadium extrapolation of data, 77-78, 436, 518, absorption and transport, 533 526, 540 acute toxicity, 535 factor, 63, 66, 76, 77-78, 139, 143, 144, adolescents, 534, 542 249, 281, 374, 412, 486, 518, 526, adults, 17, 27, 533, 534, 539-541, 542 540-541, 708 adverse effects, 534, 535-539 in physiological significance of diet- animal studies, 532, 535-537, 539-540 induced changes, 170 athletes’ use of, 535, 537, 539 in risk assessment, 63, 65, 66, 67, 710- body pools, 533 713 carcinogenicity, 538 sources of, 35, 77-78, 526, 540 cardiovascular effects, 537 vitamin A, 139, 143, 144, 567 children, 534, 541 United Nations Children’s Fund, 263 data selection, 539-540 Units, conversion of and diabetes, 532, 534, 535, 536, 539, international units, 709 542 REs to RAEs, 2, 82-83, 86-93, 123, 564- dose-response assessment for ULs, 539- 568 542 vitamin A, 92-93, 565-566, 709 in drinking water, 535 Urea and uric acid, 535, 540 DRIs, 2, 6, 533, 576 Urinary excretion elderly people, 533, 534 boron, 511, 515 EPA oral reference dose, 538 copper, 241, 424 excretion, 533 creatinine ratios, 263, 400 exposure assessment, 542 extrapolation of daily intakes from, and fatigue and lethargy, 538 264, 272 and ferritin, 533 hydroxyproline, 24, 172 food sources, 533-534 hypoxanthine, 423 function, 45, 532, 543 iodine, 259, 260-261, 263-264, 266, gastrointestinal effects, 536, 539 269, 271-272, 273-274, 275, 279, gender and, 636-637 281, 284, 690-691 and glucose metabolism, 532 iron, 295 and green tongue, 538 manganese, 395, 400 hazard identification, 534-539 molybdenum, 421, 422-423, 435 hematological effects, 536-537 nickel, 521, 522 and hormone metabolism, 532 sulfate, 422, 423 human studies, 535, 536, 537-538 sulfite, 423 infants, 534, 541 thiosulfate, 422 insulin-like properties, 45, 532, 534 uric acid, 422, 423, 434, 437 intakes, 57, 534, 542, 636-637 xanthine, 423 lactation, 542 zinc, 446, 463, 471, 480 by life-stage group, 27, 533, 539-542, Urolithiasis, 531 636-637 and lipid metabolism, 532

764 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES and liver congestion, 535 bioavailability, 87-90, 107, 146 metabolism, 533 bioconversion of carotenoids to, 2, 82- neurological effects, 538 83, 86-93, 565 NOAEL/LOAEL, 540 and birth defects, 128-133 and plasma urea and uric acid, 535, 540 body stores, 10, 21, 85, 94-95, 99, 103- pregnancy, 542 104, 108, 109, 112, 114, 123 renal toxicity, 535-536, 538-539, 540, and bone mineral density, 126-128, 133 541 and cancer, 85, 96 reproductive effects, 532, 537 children, 21, 51-52, 95, 96, 97, 99, 102, research recommendations, 28, 543, 106-107, 108, 112-113, 121, 122, 583 125, 129, 132, 144-145 risk characterization, 542 conjunctival impression cytology, 105 and serum urea and creatinine, 535, 540 critical endpoint, 146 supplements, 57, 532, 534, 535, 539, and dark adaptation, 10, 21, 87-89, 95, 542, 543, 636-637 97-99, 121, 123, 300-301, 568 thyroperoxidase and, 532 data selection, 133, 142-143 toxic compounds, 535 deficiency effects, 82, 87-88, 95-97, 119, and transferrin, 533 268 ULs, 17, 27, 534-542, 576 depletion/repletion studies, 88-89, 122 uncertainty assessment, 540-541 in developing countries, 94, 95, 96-97, units, 709 112, 118-122, 145 Vegetarians and diarrhea, 96, 97, 107, 118 bioavailability of nutrients, 479, 572, dietary fat and, 70, 106-107, 118, 121 574 dose-response assessment for ULs, 133, boron, 520 138-145 elderly people, 479-480 EARs, 8-9, 82, 103, 113, 115, 116, 117, iron, 315, 351, 574 567, 568 lacto-ovo, 451, 706 eldely people, 166, 167, 182, 186 manganese, 408, 412, 414 and embryonic development, 82, 85, vitamin A, 106-107, 119, 120, 123, 134- 95-96 135, 568 epidemiological studies, 126-128, 133 Very low density lipoproteins and epithelial cell integrity, 44, 85, 96, vitamin A and, 93-94 105 vitamin K and, 163 evidence considered in setting EAR, Vision, 10, 44, 82, 84-85, 87-88, 95, 119 83, 113-117, 121 Vitamin A. See also Provitamin A excretion, 93-94, 114, 118-119 carotenoids exposure assessment, 145 absorption and transport, 70, 85, 86- factors affecting requirement, 106-110 94, 106-107, 108, 116 fetal, 116, 128-129 adolescents, 112-113, 116, 117, 122, food composition determinations, 124, 125, 142, 144-145 565-566 adults, 10, 16, 21, 26, 56-57, 82, 94-95, food sources, 82, 84, 104, 122, 132, 100-102, 113-115, 121, 123, 125, 562, 565 126-129, 142-143 forms of, 83 adverse effects, 18, 118, 125, 126-132, in fortified foods, 119, 145 140-141 function, 10, 44, 82, 84-86, 568 AIs, 111, 145 gastroenteritis and, 107 alcohol consumption and, 109, 118, gender and, 8-9, 10, 56-57, 82, 83, 95, 128, 133, 134-139, 145 96, 113, 114, 115, 122, 132, 144- animal studies, 85, 95-96, 98, 104, 105, 145, 608-613, 674-675, 686-689, 692- 108, 109, 121, 126 693

INDEX 765 and gene expression, 44, 82, 85 NOAEL/LOAEL, 133, 138, 139, 143- and growth, 44, 82 144 half-life, 115 periconceptional intakes, 129 hazard identification, 125-133 physical exercise and, 127 hepatitis and, 129, 133, 134-139 and Plasmodium falciparum malaria, 96 in human milk, 110-111, 117 pregnancy and, 97, 116-117, 128-133, hyperlipidemia and, 145 142, 145, 146 and immune function, 10, 44, 82, 85- prevalence of inadequate intakes, 21, 86, 96, 98, 99, 105-106, 121 566-567 indicators of adequacy, 10, 97-106, processing of foods and, 107, 111, 112, 146, 686-689 146 infants, 51, 95, 96-97, 110-112, 119, protein energy malnutrition and, 97, 125, 129, 130-132, 140-141, 143-144, 99, 104, 106, 108, 118, 119, 145 145 pupillary response test, 98-99 and infectious morbidity and radioisotopic methods, 94, 95, 103, 114 mortality, 96-97, 107, 121 RDAs, 8-9, 10, 82, 113, 115, 116-117, intakes, 8-9, 82, 83, 111, 114, 119, 122- 123 125, 145, 146, 562, 564-568, 608- relative dose response test, 103-104, 613, 674-675, 692-693 105 interaction with drugs, 129, 133 and reproductive risk, 10, 82, 130-131, interaction with other nutrients, 97, 133, 138-139 99, 104, 106, 108-109, 118, 121, research recommendations, 146, 582 129, 143, 146, 176, 268, 284 retinol, 99, 102-103, 104, 105, 106-107, interconversion of units, 2, 82-83, 86- 112, 124, 565, 686-687, 692-693, 93, 123, 564-568 709 intervention trials, 90-91, 97, 108, 119, retinyl esters, 83, 87, 90-91, 93, 94, 125, 121, 125 688-689 intestinal parasites and, 107, 118-119, risk characterization, 145-146 121 special considerations, 112, 118-122, iodine and, 268, 284 145 iron and, 108, 118, 121 structure, 83-84 lactation and, 111, 117, 121, 142, 145, supplements, 26, 56-57, 95-97, 102, 146 105, 119, 125, 128, 133, 136-137, and LDLs, 93-94 143, 145, 612-613, 693 by life-stage group, 8-9, 26, 110-117, teratogenicity, 128-133 126-132, 608-613, 674-675, 686-689, toxicity, 118 692-693 ULs, 2, 16, 18, 26, 82, 125-146, 562 and liver abnormalities, 109, 125, 129, uncertainty assessment, 139, 143, 144, 132-133, 134-139, 142, 145 567 malabsorption of, 107, 118-119 units of activity, 92-93, 565-566, 709 and measles, 96, 97 vegetarians, 106-107, 119, 120, 123, menu for omnivorous diet, 123, 124 134-135, 568 metabolism, 93-94, 146 and vision, 10, 44, 82, 84-85, 87-88, 95, method used to set AIs, 51-52, 110-111 119 method used to set EARs, 10, 51-52, vitamin K antagonism, 176 112-115, 122 and xerophthalmia, 10, 85, 95, 97, 105, methodological considerations, 51-52, 108-109, 112 106, 127, 143 zinc and, 97, 99, 104, 106, 108-109 modified relative dose response test, Vitamin A2 (dehydroretinol), 104 104 Vitamin B12, 521, 529 Vitamin C, 231. See also Ascorbic acid

766 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES Vitamin D, 45, 510-511, 520 interaction with drugs, 172, 174-175, Vitamin E, 175-176 568 Vitamin K. See also Menaquinones; interaction with other nutrients, 24, Phylloquinones 163, 172, 173-174, 175-176 absorption and transport, 163-164, international comparisons, 187 174, 176 intervention trials, 24, 168, 171-173 adolescents, 180, 183, 184 laboratory assays, 168 adults (19-50), 162, 166, 180-182, 184, lactation, 177, 183-184 186 by life-stage group, 10-11, 176-184, 614- adults (51+), 166, 167, 181, 182, 186 617, 654-657 aging and, 166, 167, 168, 170 malabsorption syndromes and, 174, AIs, 10-11, 162, 177, 179, 180, 182, 183, 180 558, 561, 562-563, 564 manganese and, 396 animal studies, 172, 173, 175-176, 188 metabolism, 163-164 and atherosclerosis, 173 method used to set AIs, 10-11, 177-179, bioavailability, 163, 173-174, 186, 189, 180-184 568 methodological issues, 23-24, 166, 168, and blood coagulation, 10, 163, 164, 169, 171, 172, 184, 186 165-168, 175, 176, 177, 181-182 and osteocalcin γ-carboxylation, 23, body stores, 164 163, 168-170, 172, 173, 189 and bone metabolism, 10, 23-24, 162, and osteoporosis, 23-24, 170-173 169, 170, 172, 189, 583-584 plasma/serum concentrations, 166, and calcium excretion, 24, 172 170, 174 and cancer, 176-177, 187-188 pregnancy, 182-183, 188 γ-carboxyglutamyl residues, 163, 167, prevalence of inadequacy, 561 172, 173, 174, 189 processing of foods and, 184-186 children, 176, 180, 184-185 and prothrombin, 163, 164, 165-168, deficiency, 164-165, 174, 176, 180, 396 175, 176, 177, 181-182 dependency, 177 research recommendations, 189, 583- depletion/repletion studies, 167 584 dietary fat and, 163, 173-174, 185-186 retinoids and, 176 dose-response assessment for ULs, 188 special considerations, 179-180 epidemiological studies, 171, 188 supplements, 167, 169, 172, 173-174, excretion, 24, 163-164, 167 187, 189, 396, 568, 616-617 exposure assessment, 188 synthetic, 162, 164, 187 and factor VII activity, 163, 166 ULs, 7, 18, 36, 76, 78, 162, 187-189 factors affecting requirement, 173-176 unit conversion, 709 fetal, 182 and vitamin A, 176 food sources, 163, 173-174, 184-186 vitamin E antagonism, 175-176 forms of, 24, 162, 163, 173, 174, 185 function, 10, 44, 162, 163 gender and, 10-11, 162, 167, 182, 186, W 614-617, 654-657 hazard identification, 187-188 Warfarin, 172, 174-175, 568 human feeding studies, 164-165 Water purification tablets, 268 Weight. See Body weight in human milk, 177-180, 183-184 indicators of adequacy, 22-24, 165-173 Wilson’s disease, 227, 234, 248, 251, 456, infants, 176-180, 184-185, 187-188 488 Women. See also Gender; Lactation; intakes, 10-11, 57, 174, 175, 177, 181- 182, 183-185, 186-187, 188, 614-617, Pregnancy 654-657 anemia, 305 atherosclerosis, 173

INDEX 767 athletes, 352 Xerophthalmia, 10, 85, 95, 97, 105, 108- autoimmune thyroid disease, 283 109, 112 blood donation, 352 Xylosyltransferases, 394 bone mineral density, 126-128, 171, 172 boron, 511 cancer, 371 Z chromium, 212 copper, 240, 245, 246 Zeaxanthin, 123, 602-603 ethanol metabolism, 475 Zinc absorption and transport, 15, 357-358, hemoglobin concentrations, 305, 342 hormone replacement therapy, 350- 445, 447-449, 450-451, 454-458, 462, 351, 573 464-465, 472-473, 479, 483 acute effects, 482 institutionalized, 171 iodine, 278, 283 adolescents, 451, 469-470, 476-479, iron, 21, 290, 291, 305, 309, 332, 333, 486-487 adults, 17, 27, 56-57, 234, 442, 471-475, 334-337, 339-340, 341-343, 371, 378, 570-572, 700, 703 483-486, 574 LDL concentrations, 482 adverse effects, 18, 482-483, 558 AIs, 24-25, 462 manganese, 399, 400, 401, 409 menopause, 333 albumin and, 445, 446, 454, 473, 474 molybdenum, 424 alcohol consumption and, 475, 480 and alkaline phosphatase activity, 443, night blindness, 95 oral contraceptives, 334-335, 343, 350, 453, 477 700, 703 animal studies, 108, 455 arsenic and, 506 osteocalcin γ-carboxylation, 172, 173 osteoporosis, 172, 396 balance studies, 445, 448, 455, 456, postmenopausal, 127, 172, 173, 343, 458, 472, 474, 480 bioavailability, 444-445, 447, 448, 454- 350-351, 359, 378, 475, 511, 573, 700, 703 455, 457, 458, 462, 473, 479, 572, serum ferritin, 302-303 574-575, 576 body pool size and turnover rate, 357, serum transferrin, 304 smokers, 371 445, 446, 450-451, 463 supplements, 378, 409 calcium and, 455-456, 457, 458, 462, 479, 480 vitamin A, 95, 126-128, 133, 138 vitamin K, 172, 173, 186, 187, 188 and carbohydrate utilization, 444 zinc, 474, 475, 481, 482, 488 carcinogenicity, 483 catalytic activities, 15, 443, 452-453 World Health Organization copper recommendations, 248 cellular accumulation, 443 definition of adverse effect, 60 children, 449-450, 452, 454, 463-469, 486-487 definition of requirement, 29-30 iodine deficiency data, 262, 263, 265 and cholesterol, 481, 482, 486 vitamin A recommendations, 97 and cognitive function, 444, 445, 449 and copper status, 225, 234, 246, 443, Working Group on Infant Growth, 320 xerophthalmia classifications, 95 456, 458, 481, 482, 484-488, 558 zinc recommendations, 458, 572 in cow milk, 457, 462 and dark adaptation, 108-109 data selection, 483-484, 486 X deficiency effects, 15, 97, 99, 108-109, 442, 444, 446-447, 462, 506 Xanthine dehydrogenase, 422 defined, 443 Xanthine oxidase, 420 depletion/repletion studies, 108, 473- 474

768 DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES in developing countries, 488 and immune function, 443, 444, 447, dietary fiber and, 458, 480 449, 453, 474-475, 481, 482, 488 dietary protein and, 457, 458 indicators of adequacy, 24-25, 447-454, dose-response assessment for ULs, 483- 488-489 488 infants, 51, 234, 458-466, 486-487 in drinking water, 483 and infection, 445 EARs, 24-25, 466, 468, 469, 470, 475, intakes, 57, 442, 463, 466, 467, 480- 477, 479 481, 487, 559, 562, 574-575, 638- elderly people, 451, 474-475, 479, 559, 641, 652-653, 672-673, 678-679 562 interactions with other nutrients, 108- endogenous losses, 446, 448, 449, 462, 109, 455-457, 458, 462, 479, 480, 463, 469, 471-473, 476 482-483, 506 and enzyme (zinc-dependent) activity, international comparisons, 476 15, 443, 452-453 intestinal losses, 448, 456, 463-464, in erythrocytes, 442, 451, 452, 453, 472, 476 473, 482 and iron, 304, 357-358, 373, 455, 458, evidence considered in setting EAR, 482-483 463-466, 467-470, 471-475, 476-479 laboratory assays, 452, 471, 474 excretion, 446, 448, 463-464, 471-473 lactation, 477-479, 487, 488 exposure assessment, 487 by life-stage group, 24-25, 27, 458-480, factorial analysis, 15, 442, 447, 462, 483-487, 638-641, 652-653, 672-673, 463, 467, 468, 469-470, 471-473, 476 678-679 factors affecting requirement, 454-458 and lipoproteins, 482 fasting/starvation and, 446, 448, 451 malabsorption syndromes, 445, 446, 457 fetal, 477 and Menke’s disease, 488 finger proteins, 443, 444, 454 menstrual losses, 446, 448, 469, 471-472 folate and, 456 metabolism, 445-446, 474 food composition data, 560 metalloenzymes, 443 food sources, 463, 479, 480 and metallothionein, 234, 443, 444, fortified foods, 480, 575 453, 456, 473 fractional absorption method, 15, 447- method used to set AI, 459, 462 448, 449, 450, 462, 463, 468, 469, method used to set EAR, 15, 442, 463, 472, 473, 474, 476, 478 467, 468, 469-470, 476, 572 functions, 15, 44, 108, 442-444 methodological issues, 452, 476 and gastrointestinal distress, 482 MTF1 binding, 443 gender and, 15, 56-57, 442, 469, 470, NOAEL/LOAEL, 484-486 471-472, 473-474, 475, 480-481, 482, and 5'-nucleotidase activity, 453, 473-474 488, 638-641, 652-653, 672-673, 678- phosphorus and, 455-456, 457 679 phytic acid/phytates and, 444, 451, and gene expression, 15, 442, 443, 454 452, 456, 457-458, 479, 480, 572, 576 gene markers of status, 453 picolinic acid and, 458 and growth velocity, 444, 446-447, 449- plasma concentrations, 445-446, 447, 450, 452, 454, 462, 464, 465-466, 450-452, 455, 473, 476, 480 467-468 pre-albumin and, 454, 473 in hair, 452, 480 pregnancy, 447, 476-477, 487, 488 hazard identification, 481-483 protein-energy deficiency and, 108 and hepatic proteins, 454 radiotracer studies, 357-358, 455, 472, and hormone metabolism, 443, 444, 454 489 in human milk, 6, 51, 457, 460-462, RDAs, 15, 24-25, 442, 466, 468, 469, 463, 465, 477-478 470, 475, 477, 479, 557, 574 regulatory role, 15, 443-444, 454

INDEX 769 reproductive effects, 444, 447, 476, 483 and teratogenesis, 444 research recommendations, 487-488 and testosterone, 454 and retinol binding protein, 454, 473 and thyroxin, 454, 473 risk characterization, 487 trauma and, 445, 446 serum concentrations, 454, 474, 476, and tyrosine kinase, 443 480 ULs, 18, 2, 17, 27, 442, 481-488, 561- special considerations, 462, 479-480, 562, 574 487 uncertainty assessment, 486-487 and stress response, 444, 445, 489 units, 709 structural role, 15, 443 urinary losses, 446, 463, 471, 480 superoxide dismutase activity, 442, vegetarianis, 451, 479-480, 572, 574 443, 453, 482, 483 and vitamin A, 97, 99, 104, 106, 108- supplements, 56-57, 108, 234, 401, 444, 109 447, 449-450, 452, 453, 454, 456, WHO requirements, 458 465-466, 467, 476, 478-479, 481, and Wilson’s disease, 234, 456, 488 482, 483, 488, 489, 557, 560, 562, 575

FOOD AND NUTRITION BOARD, INSTITUTE OF MEDICINE– NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES: RECOMMENDED INTAKES FOR INDIVIDUALS, VITAMINS Life Stage Vitamin A Vitamin C Vitamin D Vitamin E Vitamin K Thiamin Riboflavin Group (µg/d)a (mg/d) (µg/d)b,c (mg/d) d (µg/d) (mg/d) (mg/d) Infants 0–6 mo 400* 40* 5* 4* 2.0* 0.2* 0.3* 7–12 mo 500* 50* 5* 5* 2.5* 0.3* 0.4* Children 1–3 y 300 15 5* 6 30* 0.5 0.5 4–8 y 400 25 5* 7 55* 0.6 0.6 Males 9–13 y 600 45 5* 11 60* 0.9 0.9 14–18 y 900 75 5* 15 75* 1.2 1.3 19–30 y 900 90 5* 15 120* 1.2 1.3 31–50 y 900 90 5* 15 120* 1.2 1.3 51–70 y 900 90 10* 15 120* 1.2 1.3 > 70 y 900 90 15* 15 120* 1.2 1.3 Females 9–13 y 600 45 5* 11 60* 0.9 0.9 14–18 y 700 65 5* 15 75* 1.0 1.0 19–30 y 700 75 5* 15 90* 1.1 1.1 31–50 y 700 75 5* 15 90* 1.1 1.1 51–70 y 700 75 10* 15 90* 1.1 1.1 > 70 y 700 75 15* 15 90* 1.1 1.1 Pregnancy ≤ 18 y 750 80 5* 15 75* 1.4 1.4 19–30 y 770 85 5* 15 90* 1.4 1.4 31–50 y 770 85 5* 15 90* 1.4 1.4 Lactation ≤ 18 y 1,200 115 5* 19 75* 1.4 1.6 19–30 y 1,300 120 5* 19 90* 1.4 1.6 31–50 y 1,300 120 5* 19 90* 1.4 1.6 NOTE: This table (taken from the DRI reports, see www.nap.edu) presents Rec- ommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) in bold type and Adequate Intakes (AIs) in ordinary type followed by an asterisk (*). RDAs and AIs may both be used as goals for individual intake. RDAs are set to meet the needs of almost all (97 to 98 percent) individuals in a group. For healthy breastfed infants, the AI is the mean intake. The AI for other life stage and gender groups is believed to cover needs of all individuals in the group, but lack of data or uncertainty in the data prevent being able to specify with confidence the percentage of individuals covered by this intake. a As retinol activity equivalents (RAEs). 1 RAE = 1 µg retinol, 12 µg β-carotene, 24 µg α-carotene, or 24 µg β-cryptoxanthin. To calculate RAEs from REs of provitamin A carotenoids in foods, divide the REs by 2. For preformed vitamin A in foods or supple- ments and for provitamin A carotenoids in supplements, 1 RE = 1 RAE. 770

ICINE– MINS Thiamin Riboflavin Niacin Vitamin B6 Folate Vitamin B12 Pantothenic Biotin Choline (mg/d) (mg/d) (mg/d)e (mg/d) (µg/d)f (µg/d) Acid (mg/d) (µg/d) (mg/d)g 0.2* 0.3* 2* 0.1* 65* 0.4* 1.7* 5* 125* 0.3* 0.4* 4* 0.3* 80* 0.5* 1.8* 6* 150* 0.5 0.5 6 0.5 150 0.9 2* 8* 200* 0.6 0.6 8 0.6 200 1.2 3* 12* 250* 0.9 0.9 12 1.0 300 1.8 4* 20* 375* 1.2 1.3 16 1.3 400 2.4 5* 25* 550* 1.2 1.3 16 1.3 400 2.4 5* 30* 550* 1.2 1.3 16 1.3 400 2.4 5* 30* 550* 1.2 1.3 16 1.7 400 2.4h 5* 30* 550* 1.2 1.3 16 1.7 400 2.4h 5* 30* 550* 0.9 0.9 12 1.0 300 1.8 4* 20* 375* 1.0 1.0 14 1.2 400i 2.4 5* 25* 400* 1.1 1.1 14 1.3 400i 2.4 5* 30* 425* 1.1 1.1 14 1.3 400i 2.4 5* 30* 425* 1.1 1.1 14 1.5 400 2.4h 5* 30* 425* 1.1 1.1 14 1.5 400 2.4h 5* 30* 425* 1.4 1.4 18 1.9 600j 2.6 6* 30* 450* 1.4 1.4 18 1.9 600j 2.6 6* 30* 450* 1.4 1.4 18 1.9 600j 2.6 6* 30* 450* 1.4 1.6 17 2.0 500 2.8 7* 35* 550* 1.4 1.6 17 2.0 500 2.8 7* 35* 550* 1.4 1.6 17 2.0 500 2.8 7* 35* 550* continued b calciferol. 1 µg calciferol = 40 IU vitamin D. c In the absence of adequate exposure to sunlight. d As α-tocopherol. α-Tocopherol includes RRR-α-tocopherol, the only form of α-tocopherol that occurs naturally in foods, and the 2R-stereoisomeric forms of α-tocopherol (RRR-, RSR-, RRS-, and RSS-α-tocopherol) that occur in fortified foods and supplements. It does not include the 2S-stereoisomeric forms of α-tocopherol (SRR-, SSR-, SRS-, and SSS-α-tocopherol), also found in fortified foods and supplements. e As niacin equivalents (NE). 1 mg of niacin = 60 mg of tryptophan; 0–6 months = preformed niacin (not NE). f As dietary folate equivalents (DFE). 1 DFE = 1 µ g food folate = 0.6 µg of folic acid from fortified food or as a supplement consumed with food = 0.5 µg of a supplement taken on an empty stomach. g Although AIs have been set for choline, there are few data to assess whether a 771

Table Continued FOOD AND NUTRITION BOARD, INSTITUTE OF MEDICINE– NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES DIETARY REFERENCE INTAKES: RECOMMENDED INTAKES FOR INDIVIDUALS, ELEMENTS Life Stage Calcium Chromium Copper Fluoride Iodine Iron Magnesium Group (mg/d) (µg/d) (µg/d) (mg/d) (µg/d) (mg/d) (mg/d) Infants 0–6 mo 210* 0.2* 200* 0.01* 110* 0.27* 30* 7–12 mo 270* 5.5* 220* 0.5* 130* 11 75* Children 1–3 y 500* 11* 340 0.7* 90 7 80 4–8 y 800* 15* 440 1* 90 10 130 Males 9–13 y 1,300* 25* 700 2* 120 8 240 14–18 y 1,300* 35* 890 3* 150 11 410 19–30 y 1,000* 35* 900 4* 150 8 400 31–50 y 1,000* 35* 900 4* 150 8 420 51–70 y 1,200* 30* 900 4* 150 8 420 > 70 y 1,200* 30* 900 4* 150 8 420 Females 9–13 y 1,300* 21* 700 2* 120 8 240 14–18 y 1,300* 24* 890 3* 150 15 360 19–30 y 1,000* 25* 900 3* 150 18 310 31–50 y 1,000* 25* 900 3* 150 18 320 51–70 y 1,200* 20* 900 3* 150 8 320 > 70 y 1,200* 20* 900 3* 150 8 320 Pregnancy ≤ 18 y 1,300* 29* 1,000 3* 220 27 400 19–30 y 1,000* 30* 1,000 3* 220 27 350 31–50 y 1,000* 30* 1,000 3* 220 27 360 Lactation ≤ 18 y 1,300* 44* 1,300 3* 290 10 360 19–30 y 1,000* 45* 1,300 3* 290 9 310 31–50 y 1,000* 45* 1,300 3* 290 9 320 continued dietary supply of choline is needed at all stages of the life cycle, and it may be that the choline requirement can be met by endogenous synthesis at some of these stages. h Because 10 to 30 percent of older people may malabsorb food-bound B , it is 12 advisable for those older than 50 years to meet their RDA mainly by consuming foods fortified with B12 or a supplement containing B12 . i In view of evidence linking folate intake with neural tube defects in the fetus, it is recommended that all women capable of becoming pregnant consume 400 µg from supplements or fortified foods in addition to intake of food folate from a varied diet. 772

Iron Magnesium Manganese Molybdenum Phosphorus Selenium Zinc (mg/d) (mg/d) (mg/d) (µg/d) (mg/d) (µg/d) (mg/d) 0.27* 30* 0.003* 2* 100* 15* 2* 11 75* 0.6* 3* 275* 20* 3 7 80 1.2* 17 460 20 3 10 130 1.5* 22 500 30 5 8 240 1.9* 34 1,250 40 8 11 410 2.2* 43 1,250 55 11 8 400 2.3* 45 700 55 11 8 420 2.3* 45 700 55 11 8 420 2.3* 45 700 55 11 8 420 2.3* 45 700 55 11 8 240 1.6* 34 1,250 40 8 15 360 1.6* 43 1,250 55 9 18 310 1.8* 45 700 55 8 18 320 1.8* 45 700 55 8 8 320 1.8* 45 700 55 8 8 320 1.8* 45 700 55 8 27 400 2.0* 50 1,250 60 12 27 350 2.0* 50 700 60 11 27 360 2.0* 50 700 60 11 10 360 2.6* 50 1,250 70 13 9 310 2.6* 50 700 70 12 9 320 2.6* 50 700 70 12 j It is assumed that women will continue consuming 400 µ g from supplements or fortified food until their pregnancy is confirmed and they enter prenatal care, which ordinarily occurs after the end of the periconceptional period—the critical time for formation of the neural tube. Copyright 2001 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. SOURCES: Dietary Reference Intakes for Calcium, Phosphorus, Magnesium, Vitamin D, and Fluoride (1997); Dietary Reference Intakes for Thiamin, Riboflavin, Niacin, Vitamin B6, Folate, Vitamin B12, Pantothenic Acid, Biotin, and Choline (1998); Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin C, Vitamine E, Selenium, and Carotenoids (2000); and Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc (2001). These reports may be accessed via www.nap.edu. 773

Dietary Reference Intakes for Vitamin A, Vitamin K, Arsenic, Boron, Chromium, Copper, Iodine, Iron, Manganese, Molybdenum, Nickel, Silicon, Vanadium, and Zinc Get This Book
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This volume is the newest release in the authoritative series issued by the National Academy of Sciences on dietary reference intakes (DRIs). This series provides recommended intakes, such as Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs), for use in planning nutritionally adequate diets for individuals based on age and gender. In addition, a new reference intake, the Tolerable Upper Intake Level (UL), has also been established to assist an individual in knowing how much is "too much" of a nutrient.

Based on the Institute of Medicine's review of the scientific literature regarding dietary micronutrients, recommendations have been formulated regarding vitamins A and K, iron, iodine, chromium, copper, manganese, molybdenum, zinc, and other potentially beneficial trace elements such as boron to determine the roles, if any, they play in health. The book also:

  • Reviews selected components of food that may influence the bioavailability of these compounds.
  • Develops estimates of dietary intake of these compounds that are compatible with good nutrition throughout the life span and that may decrease risk of chronic disease where data indicate they play a role.
  • Determines Tolerable Upper Intake levels for each nutrient reviewed where adequate scientific data are available in specific population subgroups.
  • Identifies research needed to improve knowledge of the role of these micronutrients in human health.

This book will be important to professionals in nutrition research and education.

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