National Academies Press: OpenBook
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×

THE AIRLINER CABIN ENVIRONMENT AND THE HEALTH OF PASSENGERS AND CREW

Committee on Air Quality in Passenger Cabins of Commercial Aircraft

Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology

Division on Earth and Life Studies

National Research Council

NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
Washington, D.C.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×

NATIONAL ACADEMY PRESS
2101 Constitution Ave., N.W. Washington, D.C. 20418

NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.

This project was supported by Award No. DTFA0100P100P10285 between the National Academy of Sciences and the U.S. Department of Transportation. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or agencies that provided support for this project.

Library of Congress Control Number 2001099122

International Standard Book Number 0-309-08289-7

Cover photograph by Steve Cole, Photodisc

Additional copies of this report are available from:
National Academy Press
2101 Constitution Ave., NW Box 285 Washington, DC 20055 800–624–6242 202–334–3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area) http://www.nap.edu

Copyright 2002 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.

Printed in the United States of America

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES

National Academy of Sciences

National Academy of Engineering

Institute of Medicine

National Research Council

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Bruce M.Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Wm. A.Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering.

The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Kenneth I. Shine is president of the Institute of Medicine.

The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. Wm. A.Wulf are chairman and vice chairman, respectively, of the National Research Council.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
This page in the original is blank.
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×

COMMITTEE ON AIR QUALITY IN PASSENGER CABINS OF COMMERCIAL AIRCRAFT

Members

MORTON LIPPMANN (Chair),

New York University School of Medicine, Tuxedo, New York

HARRIET A.BURGE,

Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts

BYRON W.JONES,

Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas

JANET M.MACHER,

California Department of Health Services, Berkeley, California

MICHAEL S.MORGAN,

University of Washington, Seattle, Washington

WILLIAM W.NAZAROFF,

University of California, Berkeley, California

RUSSELL B.RAYMAN,

Aerospace Medical Association, Alexandria, Virginia

JOHN D.SPENGLER,

Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts

IRA B.TAGER,

University of California, Berkeley, California

CHRISTIAAN VAN NETTEN,

University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia

BERNARD WEISS,

University of Rochester, Rochester, New York

CHARLES J.WESCHLER,

UMDNJ-Robert Wood Johnson Medical School-Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey

HANSPETER WITSCHI,

University of California, Davis, California

Staff

EILEEN N.ABT, Project Director

ROBERTA M.WEDGE, Project Director

ELLEN K.MANTUS, Program Officer

NORMAN GROSSBLATT, Editor

MIRSADA KARALIC-LONCAREVIC, Research Assistant

LUCY V.FUSCO, Senior Project Assistant

BRYAN SHIPLEY, Project Assistant

Sponsor

U.S. FEDERAL AVIATION ADMINISTRATION

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×

BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY1

Members

GORDON ORIANS (Chair),

University of Washington, Seattle, Washington

JOHN DOULL (Vice Chair),

University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas

DAVID ALLEN,

University of Texas, Austin, Texas

INGRID C.BURKE,

Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado

THOMAS BURKE,

Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, Maryland

WILLIAM L.CHAMEIDES,

Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, Georgia

CHRISTOPHER B.FIELD,

Carnegie Institute of Washington, Stanford, California

J.PAUL GILMAN,

Celera Genomics, Rockville, Maryland

DANIEL S.GREENBAUM,

Health Effects Institute, Cambridge, Massachusetts

BRUCE D.HAMMOCK,

University of California, Davis, California

ROGENE HENDERSON,

Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque, New Mexico

CAROL HENRY,

American Chemistry Council, Arlington, Virginia

ROBERT HUGGETT,

Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan

JAMES H.JOHNSON,

Howard University, Washington, D.C.

JAMES F.KITCHELL,

University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin

DANIEL KREWSKI,

University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario

JAMES A.MACMAHON,

Utah State University, Logan, Utah

WILLEM F.PASSCHIER,

Health Council of the Netherlands, The Hague

ANN POWERS,

Pace University School of Law, White Plains, New York

LOUISE M.RYAN,

Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts

KIRK SMITH,

University of California, Berkeley, California

LISA SPEER,

Natural Resources Defense Council, New York, New York

Senior Staff

JAMES J.REISA, Director

DAVID J.POLICANSKY, Associate Director and Senior Program Director for Applied Ecology

RAYMOND A.WASSEL, Senior Program Director for Environmental Sciences and Engineering

KULBIR BAKSHI, Program Director for the Committee on Toxicology

ROBERTA M.WEDGE, Program Director for Risk Analysis

K.JOHN HOLMES, Senior Staff Officer

RUTH E.CROSSGROVE, Managing Editor

1  

This study was planned, overseen, and supported by the Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×

OTHER REPORTS OF THE BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY

Arsenic in Drinking Water: 2001 Update (2001)

Evaluating Vehicle Emissions Inspection and Maintenance Programs (2001)

Compensating for Wetland Losses Under the Clean Water Act (2001)

A Risk-Management Strategy for PCB-Contaminated Sediments (2001)

Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury (2000)

Strengthening Science at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency: Research-Management and Peer-Review Practices (2000)

Scientific Frontiers in Developmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment (2000)

Modeling Mobile-Source Emissions (2000)

Toxicological Risks of Selected Flame-Retardant Chemicals (2000)

Copper in Drinking Water (2000)

Ecological Indicators for the Nation (2000)

Waste Incineration and Public Health (1999)

Hormonally Active Agents in the Environment (1999)

Research Priorities for Airborne Particulate Matter: I. Immediate Priorities and a Long-Range Research Portfolio (1998); II. Evaluating Research Progress and Updating the Portfolio (1999); III. Early Research Progress (2001)

Ozone-Forming Potential of Reformulated Gasoline (1999)

Risk-Based Waste Classification in California (1999)

Arsenic in Drinking Water (1999)

Brucellosis in the Greater Yellowstone Area (1998)

The National Research Council’s Committee on Toxicology: The First 50 Years (1997)

Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet (1996)

Upstream: Salmon and Society in the Pacific Northwest (1996)

Science and the Endangered Species Act (1995)

Wetlands: Characteristics and Boundaries (1995)

Biologic Markers (5 reports, 1989–1995)

Review of EPA’s Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (3 reports, 1994–1995)

Science and Judgment in Risk Assessment (1994)

Ranking Hazardous Waste Sites for Remedial Action (1994)

Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children (1993)

Setting Priorities for Land Conservation (1993)

Protecting Visibility in National Parks and Wilderness Areas (1993)

Dolphins and the Tuna Industry (1992)

Science and the National Parks (1992)

Assessment of the U.S. Outer Continental Shelf Environmental Studies Program, Volumes I–IV (1991–1993)

Human Exposure Assessment for Airborne Pollutants (1991)

Page viii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×

Rethinking the Ozone Problem in Urban and Regional Air Pollution (1991)

Decline of the Sea Turtles (1990)

Copies of these reports may be ordered from the National Academy Press (800) 624–6242 or (202) 334–3313

www.nap.edu

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×

Preface

In 1986, a committee of the National Research Council (NRC), the principal operating arm of the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering, produced a report requested by Congress titled The Airliner Cabin Environment: Air Quality and Safety. That report recommended the elimination of smoking on most domestic airline flights and a number of other actions to address health and safety problems and to obtain better data on cabin air quality. In response to that report, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) took several actions, including the banning of smoking on all domestic flights. However, the health complaints of passengers and cabin crew continue. Their complaints tend to be broad and nonspecific and to have multiple possible causes, including air contaminants, so it is difficult to define or discern a precise illness or syndrome.

As a result of continued concerns about aircraft cabin air quality and health issues raised by passengers and cabin crew, Congress directed FAA in the Wendell H.Ford Aviation Investment and Reform Act of the 21st Century, enacted in 2000, to request that the NRC perform another independent study to examine cabin air quality.

In this report, the Committee on Air Quality in Passenger Cabins of Commercial Aircraft reviews what is known about air quality in passenger cabins, emphasizing studies conducted since the 1986 report. The committee specifically examined the aircraft environmental control systems, the sources of contaminants in aircraft cabins, and the toxicity and health effects associated with these contaminants; it provides a number of recommendations for potential approaches for improving cabin air quality.

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×

This report has been reviewed in draft form by persons chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the NRC’s Report Review Committee. The purposes of this independent review were to provide candid and critical comments to assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards of objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following for their review of this report: Charles E.Becker (emeritus), University of California, San Francisco School of Medicine, Snow Mass Village, Colorado; Franklin D.Farrington, Boeing Company, Long Beach, California; Ashok Gadgil, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, California; R.Richard Heppe (retired), California Lockheed, Solvang, California; Donald F.Hornig (emeritus), Brown University, Little Compton, Rhode Island; Nadia S.Juzych, Michigan Public Health Institute, Birmingham, Michigan; Roger O.McClellan (emeritus), Chemical Industry Institute of Toxicology, Albuquerque, New Mexico; James M.Melius, New York State Laborers’ Health and Safety Trust Fund, Albany, New York; Shelly Miller, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado; Niren L.Nagda, Energen Consulting, Inc., Germantown, Maryland; P.Barry Ryan, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia; John C.Sagebiel, Desert Research Institute, Reno, Nevada; Calvin C.Willhite, California Environmental Protection Agency, Berkeley, California.

Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of the report was overseen by John C.Bailar, III (emeritus), University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, and Edward C.Bishop, Parsons Engineering Science, Inc., Fairfax, Virginia. Appointed by the NRC, they were responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of the report rests entirely with the author committee and the institution.

The committee gratefully acknowledges the following for making presentations to the committee: Charles Ruehle and Thomas Nagle, FAA; Martha Waters, Elizabeth Whelan, and Kevin Dunn, National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health; Christopher Witkowski and Judith Murawski, Association of Flight Attendants; Olney Anthony, International Association of Ma-

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×

chinists Union and Aerospace Workers (IAM); David Space and Richard Johnson, Boeing Corporation; Martin Dechow, Airbus Corporation; Richard Fox and George Rusch, Honeywell Corporation; Raynard Fenster, Information Overload Corporation; and Jolanda Janczewski, Consolidated Safety Services, Inc. The committee also wishes to thank the following who provided further background information: Gene Kirkendahl and Stephen Happenny, FAA; Ron Shepard, IAM; Jim McClendon, Alaska Airlines; John Downey, BAE Systems; Mac Cookson, Steve Ramdeen, and Kilisi Vailu’u, United Airlines; Sarah Knife, General Electric Aircraft Engines; Keith Morgan, Pratt & Whitney; Wayne Daughtrey, ExxonMobil Corporation; Vincent Johnston, Boeing Corporation; and Robert Wright, U.S. Air Force. The committee gives special thanks to staff at United Airlines who provided site visits of its major maintenance facilities in Oakland, California, and Indianapolis, Indiana, and provided us with additional background information: Clayton Satterlee, Yvonne Daverin, John Upchurch, Anita Davis, Roger Rube, Robert Patterson, Steve Lewis, and Rick Ransom.

The committee is thankful for the useful input of Charles Schumann in the early deliberations of this study. The committee is also grateful for the assistance of the NRC staff in preparing this report. Staff members who contributed to this effort are Eileen Abt, project director; Roberta Wedge, senior program officer; Ellen Mantus, program officer; Norman Grossblatt, editor; Ruth Crossgrove, managing editor; Lucy Fusco, senior project assistant; Mirsada Karalic-Loncarevic, research assistant; and Bryan Shipley, project assistant. I would also like to thank all the members of the committee for their dedicated efforts throughout the development of this report.

Finally, the committee extends its heartfelt condolences to those who lost family, friends, and colleagues in the events of September 11, 2001. These events will undoubtably have extensive repercussions on all aspects of air transportation. Although safety is always the overriding priority for air transportation, air quality in the aircraft cabin will also continue to be an important factor affecting the health of passengers and crew. The committee hopes that this report will make a long-lasting contribution to the goal of ensuring the health of all who fly aboard commercial aircraft.

Morton Lippmann, Chair

Committee on Air Quality in Passenger Cabins of Commercial Aircraft

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
This page in the original is blank.
Page xiii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
This page in the original is blank.
Page xvii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×

The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew

Page xviii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
This page in the original is blank.
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
Page R1
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
Page R2
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
Page R3
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
Page R4
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
Page R5
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
Page R6
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
Page R7
Page viii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
Page R8
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
Page R9
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
Page R10
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
Page R11
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
Page R12
Page xiii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
Page R13
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
Page R14
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
Page R15
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
Page R16
Page xvii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
Page R17
Page xviii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2002. The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10238.
×
Page R18
Next: Summary »
The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew Get This Book
×
Buy Paperback | $61.00 Buy Ebook | $48.99
MyNAP members save 10% online.
Login or Register to save!
Download Free PDF

Although poor air quality is probably not the hazard that is foremost in peoples’ minds as they board planes, it has been a concern for years. Passengers have complained about dry eyes, sore throat, dizziness, headaches, and other symptoms. Flight attendants have repeatedly raised questions about the safety of the air that they breathe.

The Airliner Cabin Environment and the Health of Passengers and Crew examines in detail the aircraft environmental control systems, the sources of chemical and biological contaminants in aircraft cabins, and the toxicity and health effects associated with these contaminants. The book provides some recommendations for potential approaches for improving cabin air quality and a surveillance and research program.

  1. ×

    Welcome to OpenBook!

    You're looking at OpenBook, NAP.edu's online reading room since 1999. Based on feedback from you, our users, we've made some improvements that make it easier than ever to read thousands of publications on our website.

    Do you want to take a quick tour of the OpenBook's features?

    No Thanks Take a Tour »
  2. ×

    Show this book's table of contents, where you can jump to any chapter by name.

    « Back Next »
  3. ×

    ...or use these buttons to go back to the previous chapter or skip to the next one.

    « Back Next »
  4. ×

    Jump up to the previous page or down to the next one. Also, you can type in a page number and press Enter to go directly to that page in the book.

    « Back Next »
  5. ×

    Switch between the Original Pages, where you can read the report as it appeared in print, and Text Pages for the web version, where you can highlight and search the text.

    « Back Next »
  6. ×

    To search the entire text of this book, type in your search term here and press Enter.

    « Back Next »
  7. ×

    Share a link to this book page on your preferred social network or via email.

    « Back Next »
  8. ×

    View our suggested citation for this chapter.

    « Back Next »
  9. ×

    Ready to take your reading offline? Click here to buy this book in print or download it as a free PDF, if available.

    « Back Next »
Stay Connected!