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OCR for page 1
Overview
Many of the fishermen in developing countries are locked into
economic systems that result in relative poverty. Although the
technologies they use have evolved in accord with indigenous bi-
ological resources and socioeconomic realities, there may be op-
portunities for improvement. Existing technologies from other de-
veloping regions might be transferred to these fisheries and some
of the technological advances from industrialized countries might
benefit artisanal fishermen.
This report describes some of these innovative fishing tech-
nologies for small-scale fishermen, administrators of fisheries, de-
velopment assistance groups, and others concerned with fisheries.
The objective is to establish new contacts, to examine alterna-
tive fishing technologies, and, after careful planning, to encourage
application in new areas.
SMA[L-SCALE FISHERMEN
There are about 15 million traditional small-scale fishermen in
the Third World, perhaps half of whom fish full time. Another 15
million people are involved in fish preservation and distribution.
Assuming an average family of six, close to 200 million people in
poorer countries are dependent on small-scale fisheries. For these
1
OCR for page 2
2 FISHERIES TECHNOLOGIES FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
people and the many others whom they supply, fish caught by
traditional methods represent their principal source of protein.
Traditional fisheries may be commercial or subsistence, but
they each have in common a small cash income. Fishermen of
this sector often live In isolated coastal villages and may also be
engaged in susbsistence agriculture. In many societies, artisanal
fishermen occupy the lowest social and economic class.
The fisherman's main wealth is in his fishing gear (boats,
motors, nets, and lines), which is subject to rapid depreciation
and loss. Fishermen either construct their own boats and assemble
their gear or purchase them from village experts. In some cases,
their small boats are powered with outboard gasoline motors,
although sail and paddle power are cornrnon. Fishing practices
tend to be labor intensive with minimal mechanical assistance.
The total investment in fishing equipment is generally quite low,
and the artisanal fisherman is quite adept at minimum input
management.
Fishing productivity in the artisanal sector is consequently
variable and low; many fishermen catch only one or two tons of
fish per year. Nevertheless, the fish catch per ton of fuel con-
sumed is much higher than in the industrial sector. The catch is
rarely distributed in organizer} markets; more often it goes to local
markets or is consumed by the fishermen's family.
PROBLEMS OF SMALI~SCALE FISHERMEN
Artisanal fishermen face a series of difficulties that contribute
to their marginal standard of living. Government fishery policies
often tend to concentrate resources in the modern, large-scale,
commercial fisheries that earn foreign exchange. Thus, the small-
scale fisherman finds it difficult or impossible to obtain credit,
extension services, marketing assistance, or similar aid from de-
velopment programs.
Traditional fishermen often compete with the industrial sector
over limited common resources in the exclusive economic zone and
commonly lose against more efficient technologies. Numerous con-
flicts between these two types of fisheries occur. Typically, trawlers
enter areas used by artisanal fishermen, destroying spawning and
feeding areas, and damaging their buoys, nets, and traps. Further,
the by-catch from inshore shrimp trawlers is often discarded, both
OCR for page 3
OVERVIEW
3
removing the resource from the small-scale effort and decreasing
the availability of protein.
In many coastal zones, overexploitation of marine resources is
already a serious problem that is augmented by low productivity.
It heightens the conflicts between the industrial and traditional
fisheries and endangers the economic and nutritional status of
people who rely on the traditional fisheries.
Fish stocks may also be depleted by pollution from urban
areas, industry, or mining; this more seriously affects small fisher-
men who have only limited mobility. Mangrove destruction, which
removes vital spawning grounds, Is also detrimental to coastal fish
stocks.
In addition to biological overfishing and stock depletion, eco-
nomic overfishing often plagues the small-scale sector. Excessive
use of boats, fuel, and gear may double the effort needed to catch
a limited amount of fish.
Market access is impeded by lack of credit, capital, and trans-
portation. Moreover, the small-scale fishermen's lack of organiza-
tion precludes them from influencing the market. The unavoidable
dependence on middlemen for the means of production and mar-
keting is often a great liability.
~ other situations, the artmanal fisherman's reliance on less
than optimal fishing vessels, methods, and gear may limit his
catch, especially when he is competing with the industrial sector.
The lack of adequate landing and processing facilities exacerbates
heavy losses from wastage and makes selling fish outside the local
area difficult.
Boat construction ~ a growing problem for many fishermen.
The traditional dugout canoe, proa, and catamaran used for fishing
and marine transportation require high-quality hardwood. With
deforestation of many tropical coastal areas, these strong, work-
able, long-lived woods are increasingly scarce.
Many artisanal fishermen have adopted outboard motors, and
sail technology has fallen into disuse. Outboard gasoline motors
are expensive, difficult to repair, and not fuel efficient. Their costs
can seriously restrict fishing operations. In West Africa, the lack
of foreign exchange to purchase spare parts, replacement motors,
and fuel has resulted in a decrease in the percentage of motorized
small-scale fishing boats.
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4 FISHERIES TECHNOLOGIES FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGIE:S
While recognizing the diverse problems faced by the small-
scale fisherman in the Third World, this report will prunarily
address technological considerations. Innovative, relatively inex-
pensive technologies that, under some circumstances, might help
fishermen will be described. Although not necessarily the newest,
most sophisticated developments, these techniques may have al-
ready found successful application ~ a specific region. A tech-
nology might be successfully adapted to a new area if it solves a
specific problem, causes no ecological or social problems, and is
economically feasible and desired by the community it is intended
to serve. Successful applications of new mechanical or fabrica-
tion technologies also require training, service support, and locally
available components and spare parts.
There are no universal answers in fisheries technologies. Each
fishery should be studied individually to determine the technolo-
gies that are applicable to its specific conditions.
Boats
Traditional fishing vessels are highly adapted to the fishing
techniques and marine conditions of a specific region. This coor-
dination between structure and function is not without problems,
however. Small fishing boats often have a limited range of op-
erations and are unsafe. They may lack structures to store and
protect the catch. The high-quality timber used for boat construc-
tion in many tropical areas is increasingly scarce. Thus, in some
regions there may be a stimulus for modifications in vessel design
and construction materials.
High-quality timber and planks may be replaced by laminated
wood composites (plywoods) preserved and sealed with resins.
Plywood pieces can be wired together with galvanized soft-iron
wire and then sealed with epoxy resins in the "stitch-and-glue"
technique. Plywood boats are strong and light and are used in
many parts of the world.
New construction techniques use veneers or thin plywood
strips to build up a laminated hull over a mold. The veneer
layers are oriented diagonally to each other and glued with epoxy
resins. Plywood or fast-growing woods can be used in these rapid-
construction methods.
OCR for page 5
OVERVIEW
5
Rafts made from plastic tubes have become widely accepted
in Taiwanese coastal fisheries, as have ferrocement vessels in Cuba
and China.
Fiberglass is another increasingly popular material for boat
construction because of its light weight, longevity, and strength.
The United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization's Bay of
Bengal program has adapted a fiberglass version of the traditional
vu, a wooden outrigger. A number of fiberglass modifications of
traditional West African fishing vessels have also been designed by
the Yamaha Motor Company of Japan.
Alternative hull forms have gained popularity in some regions.
Multihulled vessels or outriggers, traditionally found in the South
Pacific and Southeast Asia, offer certain advantages for small-scale
fisheries: they are stable, can be beached, and have a large working
deck.
The outboard gasoline motor, widely used in small-scale fish-
eries throughout the world, is not very fuel efficient. Fuel is expen-
sive, a high level of maintenance is required, and spare parts are
scarce. Fishing vessels are frequently overpowered and waste fuel,
in part because of the fishermen's desire for high speed to increase
their range or competitiveness.
Fuel savings can be achieved by employing more efficient mo-
tors or using alternative fuels. Diesel-powered outboard and in-
board motors have longer lifetimes than their gasoline counterparts
and may be more economical. However, their high initial cost may
be prohibitive to the small fishermen.
Gasifier technology has been developed in the Philippines and
applied to fishing boats. Charcoal is burned with limited oxygen
supply to produce a gaseous mixture of hydrogen, carbon monox-
ide, and methane, which can be used to fuel gasoline engines.
Steam engines are also being investigated as power sources for
small boats.
The oldest propulsion technique, wind power, is being reintro-
duced in a number of small-scale fisheries. Sails may be used as
the main means for propulsion or to assist an engine. Fishermen
can take advantage of the winds, thus saving fuel and reducing
operating costs. Having an alternative propulsion source also in-
creases the crew's safety. The details of sail-assist are specific for
each fishery, since marine conditions, fishing vessels, and methods
all vary.
The sails may be constructed of very inexpensive materials,
OCR for page 6
6 FISHERIES TECHNOLOGIES FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
such as canvas bags or the plastic sheeting used by kattumaran
fishermen in Southern India. These sails last for many months,
and can be easily repaired or replaced.
The Bay of Bengal program in India and Sri Lanka has rein-
troduced sailing rigs to small fishing vessels with positive results.
A great deal of work has also gone into fitting sails to West African
fishing canoes.
The high stability of catamarans permits them to carry larger
sail areas than equivalent monohulb. Experunental fishing cata-
marans using sails have been adopted in India, West Africa, and
the South Pacific.
Fishing Methods and Gear
The time-tested fishing methods are usually ideal for a given
region since they have evolved to best fit such local requirements
as the species to be captured and the desired size, the type of
coast, and the marine conditions. Changing conditions may dic-
tate new approaches, however. Modernizing factors are always a
consideration for every traditional fishing method or gear. More-
over, successful fishing arts could be transferred from one region
to another if conditions were comparable. There are numerous
examples of innovative fishing arts being used in the Third World
that are unknown several hundred miles away. New technologies
could tap previously unexploited resources or allow small-scare
fishermen to compete more effectively with the industrial sector.
Longlines, successfully used in many areas, offer great po-
tential for the small-scale fishermen. These unwatched lines with
multiple hooks attached to branch lines (snoods) may be set ver-
tically or horizontally and can be anchored or allowed to drift.
Modernization of this art involves the mechanization of hauling,
the use of detachable snoods and polyethylene lines that float just
off the bottom, and the introduction of light-emitting lures, which
may help to increase the catch.
Pots and traps are universal and have the advantage of low cost
and minimal inputs. They are highly specific to species and sizes,
and their placement requires knowledge of the local conditions.
Modernization in these fisheries is manifested by the use of more
durable construction materials than traditional woods and fibers.
Thus, modern Japanese octopus pots are constructed of sections
OCR for page 7
OVERVIEW
7
of PVC pipe. Loss of traps or pots can be minimized by attaching
them to longlines or by installing time release devices (po~ups).
Light attraction of fish could be employed in many parts of
the world. It is now used on Lake Tanganyika to attract fish to the
opening between the two hubs of a catamaran. A liftnet captures
the fish after they have been concentrated. In the Caspian Sea,
light is also commonly used to attract fish to liftnets.
Trawling is a fishing technique usually restricted to indus-
trial fisheries. However, two small boats with 5-hp motors can
pair trawl, pulling the net together and thus compete with larger
trawlers for benthic species.
Artificial Reefs
Fish concentrate around submerged objects such as reefs,
rocks, logs, and harbor structures. Fishermen have observed
this and built artificial underwater structures to concentrate fish
stocks. Artificial reefs are common in many traditional fisheries.
Modern technologies may provide durable materials for these
structures, but their function remains the same. Artificial reefs
can be used as effective management took. By concentrating the
fish crop, fishermen can save time and fuel, thereby facilitating the
catch.
Bundles of brush are placed in secluded coastal areas in West
Africa, Cuba, and the Philippines to provide shelter and spawning
areas for fish. Lobster shelters made of mangrove branches are
prevalent in the lobster fisheries of Cuba and the Yucatan in Mex-
ico. Traditional Japanese artifical reefs employ rock and rubble to
enhance fishing grounds. Tires and cement are common materials
for artificial reefs in Taiwan, the United States, and Israel, whereas
the Japanese invest in sophisticated fiberglass, concrete, and steed
modules.
Thailand's Department of Fisheries conducts an artificial reef
program whose objective is to enhance fishing grounds for artisanal
fishermen. Concrete trawler exclusion modules, which damage
trawling nets of industrial fisheries, have also been deployed.
Artificial reefs are placed on the sea floor; fish aggregating
devices (FADS) are used at the surface or suspended in the wa-
ter column to attract pelagic species. Japanese fisheries employ
floating bamboo shelters to attract dolphin fish or tuna. Philip-
pine payaos are tuna-attracting bamboo rafts with p aim fronds
OCR for page 8
8 FISHERIES TECHNOLOGIES FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
that are anchored in deep water. Modern FADs are constructed
of steel, plastic, and artificial fibers, and may be more durable
than traditional structures. Nevertheless, they are easily lost in
the marine environment.
Coastal Mariculture
Mariculture offers an alternative to the overexploited marine
resources in many coastal regions. It is possible that some fishing
communities could also become involved with sea farming to pro-
vide additional protein or income. Sea farming in underutilized
coastal areas would not compete with terrestrial agriculture for
space and could be implemented without large investments. This
report will only address mariculture in the coastal ocean, not the
much larger topic of pond cultivation.
Recent research by the Smithsonian Institution has shown the
biological feasibility of algal turf mariculture in nearshore areas.
Algal turfs are grown on screens and then fed to herbivores such
as whelk, parrotfish, and crab.
Highly nutritious seaweeds are consumed in Asia and are also
employed in industry. The red algae Eucheuma is cultured on
monofilament nets on family farms In the Philippines. The edible
kelp Laminaria ~ cultivated on longlines and floating rafts in
China. Nori (Porphyra), a popular edible seaweed, is farmed on
submerged nets in Japan.
Cage culture of marine fish is still in its infancy but will
undoubtedly gain popularity. The cages protect the fish from
predators and simplify harvesting. The limited space available to
the fish ensures that they will convert feed efficiently.
Crustaceans and molluscs are widely cultured in the marine
environment. Oysters, mussels, clams, and scallops are typically
grown on lines, stakes, or on the bottom, in many parts of the
world. The highest productivity of these animals is in off-bottom
culture. Good yields of mussels have been obtained in Western
Samoa. The giant clam Trifdacna displays a rapid growth rate and
has demonstrated good potential for mariculture in the Caroline
Islands.
Integrated sea farms have been established in Indonesia and
the Philippines. Houses are built on bamboo stilts over the pros
tected reef flat where sea farmers culture seaweed, shellfish, and
fish.
OCR for page 9
OVERVIEW
9
Fib Processing
Approximately 35 percent of the worId's fish catch is lost after
harvesting. These losses are great in the small-scale fisheries in
tropical countries. Simple preservation techniques, common in
one area of the world, could be employed in others to reduce
postharvest losses.
Icing is a preferred preservation technique, but since it requires
gasoline or electricity, it is often expensive. The Asian Institute
of Technology In Thailand has field-tested an ice-making machine
that uses solar energy. Wind and biomass energy may also run
refrigeration systems.
Fish may be salted by dry or wet methods, although the latter
(brine and pickle) are best for tropical applications. Numerous
solar driers are in use throughout the tropics. They exclude insects
and develop high enough temperatures to reduce mold or bacterial
spoilage. Black plastic lining in the chamber absorbs heat and
initiates a flow of heated air through the drier.
Improved smokers, such as the Chorkor smoker, are gaining
acceptance In West Africa. They have long lives, low construction
costs, consume little firewood, and have a large fish capacity.
Other processing methods have been perfected in specific re-
gions. Minced fish (surimi) is the starting material for a number
of fishpaste products in Japan. Kamaboko—the use of cheap fish
flesh for reconstituting textured marine product analogs (such as
crab legs, shrimp, and lobster meat) is becoming more widespread,
acceptable, and profitable. Boiling fish in water is a short-term
preservation technique practiced in Southeast Asia. Fermented
fish products, such as sauces and pastes, are common in South
and Southeast Asia.
LIMITATIONS
This report treats fishing technology alone, as if it were iso-
lated from biological, economic, cultural, and political considera-
tions. The constraints of the small-scale fisherman in the Third
World are usually socioeconomic and rarely due simply to the
absence of a specific technology. Those who are involved in the
introduction of technologies must be sensitive to the complete
OCR for page 10
10 FISHERIES TECHNOLOGIES FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
environment of the fisherman. Some of these interconnected con-
siderations influencing the transfer of fishing technology include
biological, economic, and social factors.
Biological Factors
Before any innovative marine technology is introduced, the
marine resources to be exploited should be identified and assessed.
Their temporal and spatial distribution, population dynamics,
behavior, and life history should all be known. Sufficient stocks
must be available to support the increased fishing effort.
At present, many coastal marine species are biologically over-
fished by the existing technologies. If this is the case for the fishery
in question, there is certainly no need to introduce more efficient
fishing technologies that would further exceed the maximum sus-
tainable yield. A new technology will create an impact on the fish
stocks. The magnitude of the impact should be determined so that
effective management programs could be revised or initiated.
Economic Factors
The introduction of new technologies involves investment of
capital. Artisanal fishermen will only embrace and continue to
use new technologies that satisfy their own economic interests.
Any increased capital, or operating or maintenance costs must be
balanced by an increased catch, which translates into increased
profit. Careful cost-benefit analyses, feasibility studies, and pilot
projects must be undertaken to ensure that this is the case.
The new technology must also be carefully compared with
and evaluated against current technologies to ascertain that it Is
more successful and is worth the increased investment. If it is
determined that there is an overinvestment in boats, gear, and
fuel (economic overfishing), it may not be wise to introduce a new
technology.
Most small-scale fishermen operate with an economic phi-
losophy of minimal input management. That is, they invest as
little as possible and hope for a maximum return. This method
of operation must be understood by those working in fisheries
development.
Credit must be available to the artisanal fishery sector with
OCR for page 11
OVERVIEW
11
conditions of financing that are culturally acceptable and econom-
ically reasonable for the fisherman. The specific situation would
determine the most appropriate structure for extending credit and
whether the primary beneficiary of the credit is the individual
fisherman or a fishing cooperative.
The regional economic stituation must be considered in addi-
tion to the economics of the new technology. It must be determined
whether the processing and storage, transportation, and market-
ing infrastructure are adequate to handle an increased catch.
Social Factors
The successful introduction of technology requires a keen un-
derstanding of the cultural intricacies of a society. A technological
innovation or modernization must be compatible with the existing
social organization and managerial level if it is to be adopted by
the community. The community's concepts of ownership of pri-
vate property and tenure of the marine resources must be clearly
understood by outsiders who are working in fisheries development.
The social implications of the new technology must also be
carefully considered. Perhaps there wall be conflict and competi-
tion with fishermen who continue to use the old technologies. Sig-
nificant income disparities might be introduced into a close-knit,
egalitarian community. Alternatively, social stratification could be
exacerbated if only the wealthier fishermen were to benefit from
the new technology. A new capital-intensive technology could also
require less manpower and create unemployment. Since technol-
ogy implies knowledge and knowledge translates into power, there
could be significant power shifts in the commmunity as a result of
the introduction.
It must be determined if the community's social fabric is re-
silient enough to withstand these increased tensions or if, perhaps,
the increased social stress caused by the technology would negate
its benefits.
The successful acceptance of a new technology by small-scale
fishermen will depend on the participation of the fishermen in
the choice of technology, their belief in its economic feasibility, the
manner of its introduction, the technology's demonstrated success,
and its modification to meet the unique local conditions.
OCR for page 12
12 FISHERIES TECHNOLOGIES FOR DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
SELECTED READINGS
Ben-Yami, M. 1984.
33~103:5-6.
Ben-Yami, M. 1984. Technology transfer. World Fishing 33~93:4-5.
Ben-Yami, M., and A. M. Anderson. 1985. Community Fishery Centers:
Guidelines for Establiahmcnt arid Operation, FAO, Rome, Italy.
Compte, M.C. 1984. Too many fishermen? Circe 17~1~:33-36.
Garcia, S. 1986. A highly successful seasonal trawling ban: the Cyprus
effect. ICLA]?~ Newsletter 9~1~:3-4.
Johannes, R. E. 1978. Traditional marine conservation methods in Oceania
and their demise. Unreal Review Ecological Sy~tcrru 9:149-164.
Johannes, R. E. 1981. Working with fishermen to improve coastal tropical
fisheries and resource management. Bulletin of Marinc Scicnec 31~3~:673-
680.
Kurien, J. 1986. Netting a decent living. I~terna;tional Agricultural Development
6~3~:10-11.
Neal, R. 1982. Dilemma of the small-scale fishermen. ICLAR-M Newsletter
5~3~:77-79.
Panayotou, T. 1985. Sma~l-Scalc Fisheries in A - a. Socioeconomic Analy~i~
and Policy. IDRC-229e, International Development Research Centre,
Ottawa, Canada.
Pauly, D. 1985. Artisanal fishing and environmental conservation in South-
east Asian Seas. Wallaceana 41~9~:3-5.
Perera, L. C. 1985. Problems of the fishermen in Bangladesh. ADAB News
12~6~:11-23.
Phinney, R. 1986. Big boost for infant fishery industry (in Vanuatu). Agricul-
tural Information Dcoclopmcnt Bulletin 8~3~:2-3.
Platteau, J. P. 1985. Marine fishing and agriculture: a contrasting picture.
Appropriate Tcchnology 23~3~:13-15.
Poggie, J. J. 1980. Small-scale fishermen's psychocultural characteristics and
cooperative formation. An;l;hropological Quarterly 53:20-28.
Pollaac, R. B. 1982. Sociocultural aspects of technological and institutional
change among small-scale fishermen. Pp. 225-247 in Modernization and
Marine Fisheries Policy, J. R. Maiolo and M. K. Orbach feds ~ Ann Abhor
Science, Ann Arbor. Michigan IJR A
Checking the march of technology. World Fishing
~ _ , _ _ .
O , _ _ .
Pollnac, R. B. 1985. Social and cultural characteristics in small-~cale fishery
development. In Putting Pcopic First, M. M. Cernea (ed.~. Oxford
University Press, New York, USA.
Posner, G. S., and J. Sutinen. 1984. Overfished Stock, UndernourmAcd Pcopic,
and Underbencfited Coastal States of Scat Africa: Opportunitice for Marinc
FuAcrics Management and Dcvelopmcnt. U.S. Agency for International
Development, Washington, D.C., USA.
Smith, I. 1979. A research framework for traditional fisheries. ICLARM
Ncu~sleticr 3~3~:3-4.
Stevenson, D., R. Pollnac, and P. Logan. 1982. A Guide for the Small-Scale
Fishery Adrrunistrator: Information from the Harvc~t Sector. International
Center for Marine Resource Development, Kingston, Rhode Island,
USA.
Thomson, D. 1985. Convict within the fishing industry: large-scale vs.
small-scale. Appropriate Tcchnology 12~3~:1-4.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
fisheries technologies
