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OCR for page 235
A
Summary of Techniques:
Theory, Research, and Applications
This appendix is a summary of the techniques covered in the commit-
tee's report. For each technique we summarize the theory and assumptions
on which it is based, key elements, the types of evaluations that have
been employed, the kinds of performance to which it is relevant, results
from relevant research, potential applications, and additional comments.
SLEEP-ASSISTED INSTRUCTION
Theory and Assumptions
There is no well-developed theory for sleep-assisted instruction.
Theoretical guidance is provided, however, by models of such basic
psychological processes as attention and information processing.
Conceptualizations are proposed that take into account cognitive
organization intrinsic to the natural state of sleep.
Key Elements
An individual's need to learn (motivation) and configuration of
procedures (stimulus intensity, speech quality) as related to the task
(learning or memory).
Tasks and Designs
Laboratory tasks, control-group designs.
235
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236
APPENDIX A
Performances Assessed
Recall, recognition, and relearning of paired associates, nonsense
syllables, or sentences.
Examples of Results
(1) Sleep-assisted instruction effects are stronger for certain sleep
stages (EEG activation containing alpha frequencies) and learning
tasks (recognition more than recall); (2) presleep set (need to learn
specific material) may be essential for sleep-assisted instruction; (3)
stronger effects occur with lengthy training sessions, self-motivated
subjects, and material presented before, during, and after sleep; (4)
retention of material (recall) is facilitated by repetition of the
material during stage II but not REM sleep.
Applications
Extra time for learning for those who spend most of the day on
operational tasks.
Comments
Different results obtained by Western and Soviet investigators
are attributed to different emphases; Western EEG-stage studies
focus on memory, whereas Soviet suggestibility studies focus on
attention.
SUGGESTIVE ACCELERATIVE LEARNING AND
TEACHING TECHNIQUES (SALTT)
Theory and Assumptions
The techniques permit content material to bypass traditional
emotional blockages and antisuggestive barriers and go directly into
long-term memory areas of the brain. The same information is routed
simultaneously to different regions of the brain, producing infor-
mation gain rather than the information losses of the forgetting
curve. In fact, it is claimed that retention is greater over time.
Key Elements
Relaxation, guided (pleasant) imagery, concentration, and sugges-
tion combined the package is what counts.
OCR for page 237
APPENDIX A
237
Tasks and Designs
Classroom instruction in conjunction with courses and foreign
language training institutes. Omnibus evaluation experiments involve
treatment versus no-treatment packages.
Performances Assessed
Classroom learning, including reading comprehension, course con-
tent (emphasizes gain scores in before-after designs), foreign language
learning.
Examples of Results
(1) Pretest-to-posttest improvements in science performance; (2)
increases in pleasantness ratings, self-motivation ratings, and task-
commitment appraisals; and (3) no significant differences on foreign
language proficiency between SALTT and the standard Defense
Language Institute Foreign Language Course instructional methods.
Applications
A relaxed approach to new materials, overcoming learning blocks
in foreign languages.
Comments
Weak experimental designs are used to evaluate the effects of
packages; further analytical work to "unpack" the parts is needed.
GUIDED IMAGERY OR REHEARSAL
Theory and Assumptions
Mental practice is beneficial because it serves either to give the
performer a chance to rehearse the sequence of movements as symbolic
task components or to provide a preparatory set by focusing attention
and lowering sensory thresholds: the former theory is likely to be
more appropriate to cognitive tasks, the latter to motor or strength
tasks. Other hypotheses deal with effects of prior experience, type
of imagery, and low-gain innervation of muscles.
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238
APPENDIX A
Key Elements
Practice performance, imagined outcomes, focused attention, sym-
bolic learning, and preset arousal levels.
Tasks and Designs
Laboratory tasks usually related to a sport; control-group designs,
meta-analysis.
Performances Assessed
Motor skills that may emphasize motor, cognitive, or strength
elements, depending on the task, which is usually related to a sport.
Examples of Results
(1) Mental practice of a motor skill enhances performance somewhat
more than no practice; (2) practice or rehearsal produces larger
effects on tasks with more symbolic elements (cognitive) than on
those that are primarily motor; (3) performance imagery combined
with negative outcome imagery produces a decrement in performance;
and (4) vivid imagery (strong visual or kinesthetic imagery) or more
practice sessions, or both, improves performance, irrespective of pre-
ferred cognitive style.
Applications
Improved performance on tasks for which the visual component is
important, such as surface navigation; for other tasks, it may not be
better than physical practice.
Comments
A common conceptual paradign and many studies make this litera-
ture suitable for meta-analysis. An updated meta-analysis by Feltz
et al. (see Appendix B) takes into account the relative effects of
physical and mental rehearsal. SyberVision~ is a popular technique
based on mental practice.
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APPENDIX A
239
BIOFEEDBACK
Theory and Assumptions
This is an external form of feedback that is intended to bring the
autonomic system into a regulated homeostatic balance. For example,
heart rate or muscle tension levels may be inappropriate for the
demands of the task. Such "disregulations" are adjusted through
the use of biofeedback.
Key Elements
Control over internal events related to specific performance, self-
regulation.
Tasks and Designs
Laboratory tasks with a variety of populations (e.g., football
players, people prone to motion sickness), control-group designs.
Performances Assessed
General ability to relax in skilled motor tasks, specifically, riflery,
playing stringed instruments, manual dexterity, and problem solving.
Examples of Results
(1) More effective for improving well-defined, specific performances
in which subjects control discrete internal events (e.g., marksmanship,
signal response and detection); (~) less effective in reducing general
arousal levels, such as antistress training; and (3) learned suppression
of a conditioned emotional response may be effective in developing
an antistress response.
Applications
Assist in rehabilitation following injury, refinement of performance
through fine tuning.
Comments
Promising work in two related areas are identifying internal events
linked to specific task performances and training in self-regulation
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240
APPENDIX A
for performers. Additional control groups are needed to separate
biofeedback effects from expectancy of positive outcomes resulting
from sophisticated gadgetry.
HEMI-SYNC~)
Theory and Assumptions
Assumes a binaural beat phenomenon resulting from presenting two
tones of slightly different frequency simultaneously, one to each
ear. Binaural beats result in an alteration of the main frequency
components of the EEG such that a frequency following response
occurs. The EEG states produced improve performance.
Key Elements
Production of binaural beats, extending the duration of the period
of theta activity (4 to 7 hertz), extended exposure to Hemi-Sync~
(for example, three days with an experienced staff administering the
treatments), and music combined with Hemi-Sync~ may further en-
hance effectiveness.
Tasks and Designs
Laboratory tasks, clinics with controlled presentation of tones,
classrooms (open-field presentation of tones). Testimonials, self-
reports, small-sample experiments.
Performances Assessed
Purports to enhance receptivity to learning, more efficient sensory
integration, more focused attention, deep relaxation, and expecta-
tions for unlimited learning.
Examples of Results
(1) In one study, about 78 percent of a class reported improvement
in mental and motor skills; (2) more positive self-reports of feelings,
ability to relax, increased energy levels, and so on when compared
with no Hemi-Sync~ and guided imagery only (see comments below).
OCR for page 241
APPENDIX A
Applications
Relaxation, induced sleep for jet lag, receptivity to learning.
Comments
241
The evidence supporting the hypothesized effects of Hemi-Sync~
on performance is based largely on testimonials and self-reports from
small samples. The research designs to date are not adequate in terms
of subject assignment to conditions or possible confounding effects
of the atmosphere; moreover, the focus to date has been on feelings
rather than skilled performances.
STRESS MANAGEMENT
Theory and Assumptions
High or inappropriate levels of stress reduce effectiveness in both
cognitive and motor tasks. Various techniques are effective in re-
ducing stress or in inducing relaxation. Each technique addresses
one or all of the following: sources of stress, the environment
(background music), and physiology (tranquilizing drugs).
Key Elements
Atmosphere and related expectations; specific treatments, including
meditation or rest, biofeedback, drugs.
Tasks and Designs
Laboratory tasks, clinics, in situ (battlefield, sports competition),
correlational designs.
Performances Assessed
Tension reduction per se (physiological and cognitive indicators),
coping skills, learning.
Examples of Results
(1) The prospect of receiving treatment for tension in the near
future may be as effective as active treatment techniques for reducing
tension; (2) decreases in tension are reflected more strongly on
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242
APPENDIX A
cognitive (self-rating scales) than on physiological (EMG) measures;
and (3) reduced tension may enhance performance involving drawing
inferences from materials but not simple recall of passages.
Applications
Enhancing coping skills, better physical and mental health, in-
creased chances for a peak performance.
Comments
It is useful to distinguish between techniques for managing stress
(organizations) and techniques for treating stress (relaxation ther-
apies, tranquilizing drugs).
NEUROLINGUISTIC PROGRAMMING
Theory and Assumptions
Cognitive processes are represented by sensory systems or imagery
that is visual, auditory, or kinesthetic. These are referred to as a
client's preferred representational system (PRS). The PRS is the
'weep structure" of a client's thought processes and is reflected in
such "surface structure" clues as eye movements and predicate use.
Knowledge about a client's PRS enables a counselor to speak the
client's language, a process that enhances empathy and influence.
Key Elements
Matching on verbal (preferred predicates) and nonverbal (eye
movements) dimensions.
Tasks ant! Designs
Interviews, counseling, analogue counseling interviews. Experi-
ments designed to evaluate the PRS and effects of matching on
perceptions.
Performances Assessed
Language style, perceptions of interviewer or counselor, relaxa-
tion and rapport, accommodative behaviors.
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APPENDIX A
243
Examples of Results
(1) Evidence for a PRS is weak; correlations among alternative
measures are low; (2) evidence for matching on preferred predicates
only is weak; and (3) matching on all predicates produces significant
effects on perceptions.
Applications
Potentially more effective vertical (and horizontal) communica-
tion, modeling experts as a training strategy.
Comments
Empathic verbal responding may underlie effects obtained for
matching per se. Two parts of this technique are matching and
modeling: the former is one of several influence strategies that may
well produce effects; the latter is a possible basis for enhanced motor
or cognitive performance.
COHESION
Theory and Assumptions
Cohesion is an aspect of the relation between a group and its
members: it consists of affective (attraction among members), cognitive
(goal satisfaction), and process (risk-taking behavior) elements. Cohe-
sion is stronger in groups that provide for member needs and whose
influence over member behavior is the result of perceived legitimacy
rather than enforced sanctions. High group cohesion is associated
with positive outcomes for group members.
Key Elements
Procedures (e.g., the COHORT system) and group properties (e.g.,
relation of group to members) that serve to increase intermember
attraction, a sense of belonging, instrumental value of the group,
risk taking, and teamwork.
Tasks and Designs
Work with sports teams, organizations (e.g., Army reservists), camps,
personal change groups. Attitude surveys of soldiers in COHORT
and non-COHORT units.
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244
APPENDIX A
Performances Assessed
Win-loss percentages in interacting (basketball, hockey) and coact-
ing (track and field) sports, organizational commitment, intergroup
competition or cooperation, goal achievement, satisfaction.
Examples of Results
(1) Group-serving patterns of attribution (diffusing responsibilty
to entire group and attributing more responsibility to self for failure
and no more than equal responsibility to self and others for success)
enhance team cohesion; (2) cohesion is a stronger correlate of
organizational commitment than such factors as quality of training,
increased communications, and compensation or tenure; (3) early and
midseason cohesion is a significant predictor of late-season perform-
ance (win-loss record); and (4) team cohesion is functional for
interacting sports but may be dysfunctional for coacting sports.
Applications
New Manning System of regiment or company stability across
assignments and locations.
Comments
This literature can be divided into three parts: components of
cohesion, factors that influence cohesion, and effects of cohesion
on unit performance. Army studies document benefits of unit stability:
for example, COHORT units have higher reenlistment rates, positive
self-image, and psychological readiness for combat, including an
ability to withstand more stress.
PARAPSYCHOLOGY
Theory and Assumptions
Psi phenomena exist and can be demonstrated; they are sensitive to
aspects of the situation and moods of the percipient. An appropriate
explanation is assumed to derive from an understanding of the role of
consciousness in the physical world.
OCR for page 245
APPENDIX A
245
Key Elements
Elusive effects (rarely replicated) are explained in terms of a variety
of phenomena including the nature of human consciousness, quantum
mechanics, attitudes and laboratory ambiance, experimenter communi-
cations, and statistical (random) processes.
Tasks and Designs
Laboratory demonstrations and experiments (although anecdotal re-
porting of experiences in situ appear also).
Performances Assessed
Experience of state or event without sensory contact (extrasensory
perception), prediction of future events the occurrence of which cannot
be inferred from present knowledge (precognition), direct mental influence
on an external physical process or object (psycho-
kinesis).
Examples of Results
(1) Success rates for psi effects in Ganzfeld experiments range from
an alleged 55 percent to a critically evaluated 30 percent; (2) psychokinesis
effects demonstrated for very large data bases as small deviations from
theoretical distributions (random event generator experiments); and (3)
statistically significant remote perception effects reported over many
trials with different stimulus materials.
Applications
Intelligence gathering, if demonstrated.
Comments
The key issues in this literature are whether psi effects are replicable
and whether a certain configuration of circumstances is needed to produce
them.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
foreign language
