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Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

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245 REFERENCES Ayanian JZ, Cleary PD, Weissman JS, Epstein AM. (1999). The effect of patients’ preferences on racial differences in access to renal transplantation. The New England Journal of Medi- cine 341(22):1661–1669. Ayanian JZ, Udvarhelyi IS, Gatsonis CA, Pashos CL, Epstein AM. (1993). Racial differences in the use of revascularization procedures after coronary angiography. Journal of the American Medical Association 269:2642–2646. Ayanian JZ, Weissman JS, Chasan-Taber S, Epstein AM. (1999). Quality of care by race and gender for congestive heart failure and pneumonia. Medical Care 37:1260–1269. Bach PB, Cramer LD, Warren JL, Begg CB. (1999). Racial differences in the treatment of early-stage lung cancer. New England Journal of Medicine 341:1198–1205. Baker DW, Stevens CD, Brook R H. (1996). Determinants of emergency department use: Are race and ethnicity important? Annals of Emergency Medicine 28(6):677–682. Baker EA, Bouldin N, Durham B, Lowell ME, Gonzalez M, Jodaitis N, Cruz LN, Torres I, Adams, ST. (1997). The Latino Health Advocacy Program: A collaborative lay health advisor approach. Health Education & Behavior 24(4):495–509. Baker DW, Hayes R, Fortier JP. (1998). Interpreter use and satisfaction with interpersonal aspects of care for Spanish-speaking patients. Medical Care 36(10):1461–1470. Ball JD, Elixhauser A. (1996). Treatment differences between blacks and whites with colorectal cancer. Medical Care 34:970–984. Balsa A, McGuire TG. (2001a). Prejudice, Uncertainty and Stereotypes as Sources of Health Care Disparities. Boston University, unpublished manuscript. Balsa A, McGuire TG. (2001b). Statistical discrimination in health care, Journal of Health Eco- nomics 20:881–907. Barfield WD, Wise PH, Rust FP, Rust KJ, Gould JB, Gortmaker SL. (1996). Racial disparities in outcomes of military and civilian births in California. Archives of Pediatrics & Adoles- cent Medicine 150:1062–1067. Barker-Cummings C, McClellan W, Soucie JM, Krisher J. (1995). Ethnic differences in the use of peritoneal dialysis as initial treatment for end-stage renal disease. Journal of the Ameri- can Medical Association 274(23):1858–1862. Barnes M, Weiner W. (1999). Evidence of race-based discrimination triggers new legal and ethical scrutiny. 8 BNA Health Law Reporter, 1984. Bauchner H, Simpson L, Chessare J. (2001). Changing physician behaviour. Archives of Dis- ease in Childhood 84:459–462. Bell PD, Huson, S. (2001). Equity in the diagnosis of chest pain: Race and gender. American Journal of Health Behavior 25(1):60–71. Bellochs C, Carter AB. (1990). Building Primary Health Care in New York City’s Low-income Communities. New York: Community Health Service Society of New York. Bennett CL, Horner RD, Weinstein RA, Dickinson GM, Dehovitz JA, Cohn SE, Kessler HA, Jacobson J, Goetz MB, Simberkoff M, Pitrak D, George WL, Gilman SC, Shapiro MF. (1995). Racial differences in care among hospitalized patients with pneumocystis carinii pneumonia in Chicago, New York, Los Angeles, Miami, and Raleigh-Durham. Archives of Internal Medicine 155(15):1586–1592. Berger JT. (1998). Culture and ethnicity in clinical care. Archives of Internal Medicine 158:2085– 2090. Berlin EA, Fowkes WC, Jr. (1998). A teaching framework for cross-cultural health care. Ap- plication in family practice. Western Journal of Medicine 139(6):934–938. Bernabei R, Gambassi G, Lapane K, Landi F, Gatsonis C, Dunlop R, Lipstiz L, Steel K, Mor V. (1998). Management of pain in elderly patients with cancer. SAGE Study Group. Sys- tematic assessment of geriatric drug use via epidemiology. Journal of the American Medi- cal Association 279:1877–1882.

246 UNEQUAL TREATMENT Betancourt JR, Carrillo JE, Green AR. (1999). Hypertension in multicultural and minority populations: Linking communication to compliance. Current Hypertension Reports 1:482– 488. Biernat M, Dovidio JF. (2000). Stigma and stereotypes. [chapter] Heatherton TF, Kleck RE, et al., eds. The Social Psychology of Stigma. (pp. 88–125). New York, NY: The Guilford Press. Bindman AB, Grumbach K, Vranizan K, Jaffe D, Osmond D. (1998). Selection and exclusion of primary care physicians by managed care organizations. Journal of the American Medi- cal Association 279(9):675–679. Bird JA, McPhee SJ, HA N-T, Le, B, Davis T, Jenkins CNH. (1998). Opening pathways to cancer screening for Vietnamese-American women: Lay health workers hold a key. Preventive Medicine 27:821–829. Blackwell JE. (1977). In Support of Preferential Admissions and Affirmative Action in Medical Education: Pre-and Post-Bakke Considerations. University of Massachusetts at Boston, unpublished document. Blixen CE, Tilley B, Havstad S, Zoratti E. (1997). Quality of life, medication use, and health care utilization of urban African Americans with asthma treated in emergency depart- ments. Nursing Research 46(6):338–341. Bloche MG. (2001). Race and discretion in American medicine. Yale Journal of Health Policy, Law, and Ethics 1:95–131. Bloche MG. (1999). Clinical loyalties and the social purposes of medicine. Journal of the Ameri- can Medical Association 281(3):268–274. Blumenthal D. (1996). Part 1:Quality of care—what is it? New England Journal of Medicine 335(12):891–894. Blustein J, Arons RR, Shea, S. (1995). Sequential events contributing to variations in cardiac revascularization rates. Medical Care 33:864–880. Bobo LD. (2001). Racial Attitudes and Relations at the Close of the Twentieth Century. In: Smelser NJ, Wilson WJ, Mitchell F., eds. America Becoming: Racial Trends and Their Consequences.Vol.1. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. Pp. 264–301. Bobo L, Schuman H, Steeh. (1986). Changing Racial Attitudes Toward Residential Integra- tion. In J. Goering, ed. Housing Desegregation and Federal Policy 152–169. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. Bobo L, Womeodu RJ, Knox AL, Jr. (1991). Principles of intercultural medicine in an internal medicine program. American Journal of Medical Science 302(4):244–248. Bonham VL. (2001). Race, ethnicity, and pain treatment: Striving to understand the causes and solutions to the disparities in pain treatment. Journal of Law, Medicine, and Ethics 29:52–68. Brach C, Fraser I. (2000). Can cultural competency reduce racial and ethnic disparities? A review and conceptual model. Medical Care Research and Review 1:181–217. Braveman P, Egerter S, Edmonston F, Verdon M. (1995). Racial/ethnic differences in the like- lihood of cesarean delivery, California. American Journal of Public Health 85(5):625–630. Brett KM, Schoendorf KC, Kiley JL. (1994). Differences between black and white women in the use of prenatal care technologies. American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology 170(1):41–46. Brewer MB. (1996). When Stereotypes Lead to Stereotyping: The Use of Stereotypes in Per- son Perception. In N. Macrae, C. Stangor, M. Hewstone (Eds.), Stereotypes and Stereotyp- ing (254–275). New York: Guilford Press. Brogan D, Tuttle EP. (1988). Transplantation and the Medicare end-stage renal disease pro- gram [Letter]. New England Journal of Medicine 319:55. Brown RE, Ojeda VD, Wyn R, Levan R. (2000). Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Access to Health Insurance and Health Care. Los Angeles, CA:UCLA Center for Health Policy Research.

247 REFERENCES Brown AF, Perez-Stable EJ, Whitaker EE, Psner SF, Alexander M, Gathe J, Washington AE. (1999). Ethnic differences in hormone replacement prescribing patterns. Journal of Gen- eral Internal Medicine 14(11):663–669. Brownstein JN, Cheal H, Ackermann SP, Bassford TL, Campos-Outcalt D. (1992). Breast and cervical cancer screening in minority populations: A model for using lay health educa- tors. Journal of Cancer Education 7(4):321–326. Burns RB, McCarthy EP, Freund KM, Marwill SL, Shwarz M, Ash A, Moskowitz MA. (1996). Variability in mammography use among older women. Journal of the American Geriat- rics Society 44(8):922–926. Burns RB, McCarthy EP, Freund KM, Marwill SL, Shwarz M, Ash A, Moskowitz MA. (1996). Black women receive less mammography even with similar use of primary care. Annals of Internal Medicine 125(3):173–182. Burstin HR. (1993). Do the poor sue more? A case-control study of malpractice claims and socioeconomic status. Journal of the American Medical Association 270:1697. Bursztajn HJ. (1990). Medical Choices, Medical Changes. New York: Routledge. Byrd WM, Clayton LA. (this volume). Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care: A Back- ground and History. Byrd WM, Clayton LA. (2001). An American Health Dilemma, Volume 1, A Medical History of African Americans and the Problem of Race: Beginnings to 1900. New York: Routledge. Byrd WM, Clayton LA, Kinchen K, Richardson D, Lawrence L, Butcher R, Davidson E. (1994). African-American physicians’ views on health reform: Results of a survey. Journal of the National Medical Association 86(3):191-9. Canto JG, Allison JJ, Kiefe CI, Fincher C, Farmer R, Sekar P, Person S, Weissman NW. (2000). Relation of race and sex to the use of reperfusion therapy in medicare beneficiaries with acute myocardial infarction. New England Journal of Medicine 342:1094–1100. Cantor JD, Miles EL, Baker LC, Barker DC. (1996). Physician service to the underserved: Implications for affirmative action in medical education. Inquiry 33:167–180. Carlisle DM, Gardner JE. (1998). The entry of African-American students into US medical schools: An evaluation of recent trends. Journal of the National Medical Association 90:466- 73. Carlisle DM, Leake BD, Shapiro MF. (1995). Racial and ethnic differences in the use of inva- sive cardiac procedures among cardiac patients in Los Angeles County, 1986 through 1988. American Journal of Public Health 85:352–356. Carlisle DM, Leape LL, Bickel S, Bell R, Kamberg C, Genovese B, French WJ, Kaushik VS, Mahrer PR, Ellestad MH, Brook RH, Shapiro MF. (1999). Underuse and overuse of diagnostic testing for coronary artery disease in patients presenting with new-onset chest pain. American Journal of Medicine 106(4):391–398. Carrasquillo O, Orav EJ, Brennan TA, Burstin HR. (1999). Impact of language barriers on patient satisfaction in an emergency department. Journal of General Internal Medicine 4(2):82–87. Carrasquillo O, Lantigua RA, Shea S. (2001). Preventive services among Medicare beneficia- ries with supplemental coverage versus HMO enrollees, Medicaid recipients, and el- ders with no additional coverage. Medical Care 39(6):616-26. Carrillo JE, Green AR, Betancourt JR. (1999). Cross-cultural primary care: A patient-based approach. Annals of Internal Medicine 130(10):829–834. Chen J, Rathore SS, Radford MJ, Wang Y, Krumholz HM. (2001). Racial differences in the use of cardiac catheterization after acute myocardial infarction. New England Journal of Medi- cine 344:1443–1449. Chin JL. (2000). Culturally competent health care. Public Health Reports 115:25–33. Chin MH, Zhang JX, Merrell K. (1998). Diabetes in the African-American Medicare popula- tion: Morbidity, quality of care, and resource utilization. Diabetes Care 21(7):1090–1095.

248 UNEQUAL TREATMENT Cho J, Solis BM. (2001). Healthy Families Culture and Linguistics Resources Survey: A Physician Perspective on their Diverse Member Population. Los Angeles: LA Care Health Plan. Chung H, Mahler JC, Kakuma T. (1995). Racial differences in treatment of psychiatric inpa- tients. Psychiatric Services 46(6):586–591. Cleeland CS, Gonin R, Baez L, Loehrer P, Pandya KJ. (1997). Pain and treatment of pain in minority patients with cancer: The Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group Minority Outpatient Pain Study. Annals of Internal Medicine 127(9):813–816. Clinton JF. (1996). Cultural diversity and health care in America: Knowledge fundamental to cultural competence in baccalaureate nursing students. Journal of Cultural Diversity 3(1): 4–8. Cobb WM. (1981). The Black American in medicine. Journal of the National Medical Association 73(Suppl):1185-244. Coleman-Miller B. (2000). A physician’s perspective on minority health. Health Care Financ- ing Review (Health Care Financing Administration) 21:45–56. Collins KS, Hall A, Neuhaus C. (1999). U.S. Minority Health: A Chartbook. New York: The Commonwealth Fund. Collins TC, Johnson M, Henderson W, Khuri SF, Daley J. (2002). Lower extremity nontraumatic amputation among veterans with peripheral arterial disease: Is race an independent factor? Medical Care 40(1 Supp):I-106-I-116. Committee on the Future of Primary Care. (1994). Institute of Medicine: Defining primary care: An interim report. Washington, DC: National Academy Press. The Commonwealth Fund. 1995. National Comparative Survey of Minority Health Care. Wash- ington DC: The Commonwealth Fund. Conigliaro J, Whittle J, Good CB, Hanusa BH, Passman LJ, Lofgren RP, Allman R, Ubel PA, O’Connor M, Macpherson DS. (2000). Understanding racial variation in the use of coro- nary revascularization procedures. Archive of Internal Medicine 160:1329–1335. Cooper LA, and Roter DL. (this volume). Patient-Provider Communication: The Effect of Race and Ethnicity on Process and Outcomes of Health Care. Cooper CP, Roter DL, Langlieb AM. (2000). Using entertainment televeision to build a con- text for prevention news stories. Preventive Medicine 31(3):225–231. Cooper-Patrick L, Gallo JJ, Gonzales JJ, Vu HT, Powe NR, Nelson C, Ford DE. (1999). Race, gender, and partnership in the patient-physician relationship. Journal of the American Medical Association 282(6):583–589. Corkery E, Palmer C, Foley ME. (1997). Effect of a bicultural community health worker on completion of diabetes education in a Hispanic population. Diabetes Care 20(3):254–257. Council on Ethical and Judicial Affairs, AMA. (1990). Black-white disparities in health care. Journal of the American Medical Association 23:2344–2346. Council on Graduate Medical Education. (1996). Eighth report: Patient Care Physician Supply and Requirements: Testing COGME Recommendations. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Downloaded from web site (http://www.cogme.gov/rpt8.htm). Council on Graduate Medical Education. (1998). Tenth report: Physician distribution and health care challenges in rural and inner-city areas. Washington, DC: Government Printing Of- fice. Downloaded from web site (http://www.cogme.gov/rpt10.htm). Council on Graduate Medical Education. (1999). Twelfth report: Minorities in Medicine. Wash- ington, DC: Government Printing Office. Downloaded from web site (http://www. cogme.gov/rpt12.htm). Cowie CC, Harris MI. (1997). Ambulatory medical care for Non-Hispanic Whites, African- Americans, and Mexican-Americans with NIDDM in the U.S. Diabetes Care 20(2):142– 147.

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Racial and ethnic disparities in health care are known to reflect access to care and other issues that arise from differing socioeconomic conditions. There is, however, increasing evidence that even after such differences are accounted for, race and ethnicity remain significant predictors of the quality of health care received.

In Unequal Treatment, a panel of experts documents this evidence and explores how persons of color experience the health care environment. The book examines how disparities in treatment may arise in health care systems and looks at aspects of the clinical encounter that may contribute to such disparities. Patients' and providers' attitudes, expectations, and behavior are analyzed.

How to intervene? Unequal Treatment offers recommendations for improvements in medical care financing, allocation of care, availability of language translation, community-based care, and other arenas. The committee highlights the potential of cross-cultural education to improve provider–patient communication and offers a detailed look at how to integrate cross-cultural learning within the health professions. The book concludes with recommendations for data collection and research initiatives. Unequal Treatment will be vitally important to health care policymakers, administrators, providers, educators, and students as well as advocates for people of color.

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