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OCR for page 142
Energy, Mineral, and Environmental
Systems Research in the United States
An Overview
Executive Summary
.
Energy, mineral, and environmental resources are critical to
the domestic economy, to national security, and to both human
welfare and the quality of life in the United States. These resources
are fundamental to other technologies as both input (energy and
minerals) and output (environmental effects). As such, they form
the base on which virtually all other economic activities are built.
Environmental quality is determined to a large extent by the way
in which energy and mineral resources are recovered and used,
and as a result, environmental considerations often play a major
role in the development of energy and rn~neral resources. It is
thus essential that a sufficient level of fundamental engineering
research be maintained in these three resource areas so that the
United States will be in a stronger position to cope with crises and
needs as they arise.
Fundamental engineering research on energy, mineral, and
environmental systems is conducted to varying extents by univer-
sities, federal and national laboratories,* and industry. This type
*A federal laboratory is an in-house laboratory of the federal govern-
ment; a national laboratory, although essentially supported by federal funds,
142
OCR for page 143
ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
143
of research has been and should continue to be funded largely
by the federal government, with supplemental support from the
private sector. The resources at issue here are of such broad sig-
nificance that no single industry or economic sector would be the
major beneficiary of technological advancements in these fields.
This is particularly true of the environment, which is in essence a
public good. Thus the federal government has the chief responsi-
bility for long-range research in these areas, carried out chiefly by
universities and the federal and national laboratories.
Federal support for engineering research in energy, mineral,
and environmental systems (both fundamental and applied) has
tended to be erratic and highly responsive to immediate concerns,
public opinion, and changing national priorities. Indeed, insta-
bility of funding has characterized this area more than any other
examined by the Engineering Research Board. Federal funding
for engineering research in the fields covered by this report is, in
most areas, substantially lower than it was just a few years ago.
When such reductions in funding occur, fundamental research,
which already represents only a small percentage of expenditures,
is often cut back to very low levels. However, this is exactly the
type of research that should be maintained at a high level at all
times to build the knowledge base that will be needed in the fu-
ture when problems once again become critical. Such periods will
surely come. Thus, national interests in these fields will be best
served, instead, by a national commitment to a long-term, stable
research environment.
Because of the critical importance that energy, mineral, and
environmental resources have for meeting national goals, and in
order to counter the instability of funding, the panel recommends
with a sense of urgency that federal funding for engineering re-
search in these fields be increased at least to the levels (in equiv-
alent constant dollars) of 5 years ago. As a first priority, such
increases should go to universities in order to preserve their dual
role in long-term fundamental engineering research and in educat-
ing tomorrow's research talent.
A commitment needs to be made within mission agencies, as
well as within the National Science Foundation (NSF), to stable
funding of university engineering research in the energy, mineral,
is independently administered by an industrial firm, a university, or another
nonprofit organization.
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144
DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
and environmental fields so that excellence in research and edu-
cation can be maintained and the knowledge base in these fields
can be expanded. The nation's interests would be well served if
mission agencies allocated, on a multiyear basis, a fixed percent-
age of their budget to this research. "Quick-response" initiatives
should be undertaken as add-one to this funding base. Increasing
the NSF's budget for basic and exploratory research in these areas
is another step that would greatly improve their long-term outlook
and stability.
Environmental issues will continue to play a major role in
industrial development. Significant environmental problems may
be associated with the high-technology fields as well as with the
chemical, mining, transportation, and energy industries. The most
important engineering research need in this area is for long-term
research on the movement, fate, ejects, and control of contami-
nants in the air, water, and soil. Such research is needed in order
to optimize new and existing industrial processes and to improve
the technological basis for proper environmental regulation. As a
subset, this requires fundamental research on physical and chemi-
cal processes (especially combustion), on biotechnology, on sensors
and measurement techniques, and on the environment's capacity
to assimilate the broad range of chemicals and other materials
that are hazardous to humans and ecosystems.
Critical areas for energy research are those that conic enable
the United States to become reasonably self-sufficient in energy,
so as to insulate it from the disastrous consequences of a loss of
imported energy for any reason. A comprehensive program of
continued engineering research fundamental as well as applied—
must be maintained to better develop and utilize all indigenous
energy sources, including coal, oil, shale, nuclear and solar power,
and natural gas. To ensure a broad range of future options, the
primary areas recommended for engineering research in this field
are the development of alternative fuels and technology, as well
as continued efforts to improve the efficiency of energy conver-
sion devices. Examples within these areas with high potential
include the direct combustion of coal for power generation and
process heat; the liquefaction, gasification, and beneficiation of
coal; the use of coal and of! shale for transportation fuels; im-
prove~d photovoltaic devices; improved energy storage techniques;
and improved energy efficiency in industrial processes, buildings,
and transportation systems.
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ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
145
At the next level of priority, engineering research should con-
tinue to ensure that the environmental consequences of energy
utilization are adequately addressed; risk assessments and control
technology development should be integral parts of energy-related
R&D. This should especially include research into the accident po-
tential of and Carnage mitigation at nuclear power plants. The d~
velopment of integrated environmental control systems addressing
liquid, solid, and gaseous effluents from coal utilization technology
is also essential.
The most critical area of engineering research for mineral re-
sources is on processes for the economic recovery of minerals from
low-grade ores. As mineral resources are expended, increasingly
lower grade ores will need to be used. Engineering research to
meet this future requirement is inadequate and should be ex-
panded, especially in areas such as (1) the development of sensors,
instrumentation, and equipment for exploration, remote mining,
and mineral processing control; (2) new separation technologies for
improved mineral recovery; (3) colloidal, biological, and electro-
chemical processes for mineral concentration; and (4) interracial
behavior of mineral fines in processing streams.
Introduction
This report of the Pane! on Energy, Mineral, and Environ-
mental Systems Research is one of seven prepared in support of a
major study conducted by the Engineering Research Board. The
report acIdresses issues sin connection with those areas of research
critical to the future development, utilization and protection of
energy sources and air, water, and mineral resources of the United
States. Thus, it examines engineering research needs in a wide
range of major resources.*
Given its enormous breadth of coverage, and given the limited
tune and budget available for its preparation, this report is not
comprehensive, nor was it intended to be. Its primary purpose is
to provide an overview of engineering research needs in these three
*Certain important resources- most notably agricultural and forest
resources were not included in the study and are not considered in this
report.
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146
DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
broad fields and, secondarily, to suggest ways of strengthening the
nation's engineering research effort in them. For the most part, the
report addresses fundamental engineering research that provides
the basis for solving many of the long-range problems that industry
and society face in connection with energy, minerals, and the
environment. Such research is conducted by universities, federal
and national laboratories, and industry, as well as by certain other
nonprofit, nonacademic research institutions.
BACKGROUND
The three areas of research examined here are closely inter-
connected. Together, they bear directly on matters of critical
national importance. Our national security depends on the con-
tinued availability of energy and mineral resources. Our domestic
economy as well as our performance in the world economy also are
both strongly dependent on energy and on materials derived from
minerals. The quality of life in the United States, which derives
in large part from the strength of our economy, also is greatly af-
fected by the quality of the environment, in particular the vital air
and water resources. In turn, the quality of these environmental
resources increasingly depends on how we use the nation's energy
and mineral resources.
v'
In a very real sense, energy, mineral, and environmental re-
sources form the base on which virtually all economic activities are
built. They are (in the case of energy and minerals) the raw input
and (in the case of environmental impacts) the ultimate output of
human economic activity. It is for this reason that political and
social attention and pressure focus so intensely on matters con-
nectec] with them. Changing economic circumstances, changing
national priorities, and changing social attitudes all combine to
alter the :lirections of research in these fields.
Changes in relative prices and increased woric~wide availabil-
ity of crude of] have, for the tune being, reduced concern about
petroleum supplies; these changes have not removed the long-term
vulnerability of the United States to a cutoff of imported oil. Both
a diversity and balance of energy sources are needled to ensure a
dependable supply of energy in the future. Complete energy in-
dependence may not be attainable; greater self-sufficiency would
reduce the nation's vulnerability to unpredictable external events,
however. The goal of reasonable energy self-sufficiency for this
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ENERGY, MINER-AL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
147
country requires a substantial R&D effort toward developing in-
novative means of energy production, distribution, and end use,
along with the definition and acceptable control of any associated
environmental problems. In addition, in the case of nuclear power,
major changes in public perception are required before this energy
source can contribute more substantially to the nation's energy
needs.
As is true of petroleum, support for research on the extraction
of minerals is also influenced by market forces and by changing
degrees of access to mineral resources in international markets.
Given the varied quantity and quality of domestic supplies, the
United States currently imports certain strategic minerals, along
with many others of broad commercial importance. Both techno-
logical and economic factors drive us to rely on external sources.
Because our access to the full range of needed mineral resources
depends on our ability to maintain often-tenuous international ar-
rangements, it is prudent for the United States to act in ways that
ensure the strongest possible knowledge base from which future
energy and mineral resource exploitation technologies can be de-
veloped. Here again, improved technology can reduce the nation's
vulnerability to external forces.
New research needs are constantly appearing in the energy,
mineral, and environmental fields because they are so closely in-
terlinked with every other area of scientific, technological, and eco-
nomic development. The opportunity to achieve success in prom~s-
ing new technological areas can be severely compromised if we are
unable to deal effectively with the energy/mineral/environmental
resource infrastructure in which these technical advances must
function. It ~ therefore essential to the continuer} health of tech-
nology development in the United States that we continue to in-
crease our fundamental understanding of these matters, so that we
will be able to cope successfully with the challenges and problems
that new technologies in any field tend to create.
SCOPE
In this report we exarn~ne a number of key issues affecting
the health and effectiveness of engineering research in energy,
minerals, and the environment.* At the heart of the report is the
*Engineering research is research conducted to expand our useful knowl-
edge about the man-made and natural worlds in order to discover engineering
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148
DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
identification of important areas of research now needing attention
if our capabilities and knowledge are to progress in a balanced
fashion commensurate with emerging needs. The panel's scope of
coverage encompassed engineering research:
. to provide an information base and methods for assessing
tradeoffs among resource utilization, environmental protection,
and economic development;
. on alternatives to petroleum as an energy source, including
nuclear fission and fusion, other fossil fuels, solar power, and other
renewable energy resources;
~ on new or improved technologies for petroleum recovery,
including economical assisted-recovery techniques;
~ on new or improved technologies for the production, dis-
tribution, and storage of electric power;
.
on new or improved technologies for more efficient end use
~ e ~ e d.
of energy In its various forms;
~ on the exploration, mining, and processing of mineral re-
sources;
~ on new or improved technologies for the utilization and
protection of air and water resources; and
~ on the reduction, control, and management of hazardous
materials.
This scope includes a mixture of fundamental and applied en-
gineering research areas, but emphasizes long-term, fundamental
work.
Policy Isgnes
BASIS FOR FEDERAL POLICIES ON
THE SUPPORT OF RESEARCH
Over the past three decades the nation's commitment to the
support of basic and applied research has provided extraordinary
benefits to society and, in the process, has established the United
principles by which significant improvements can be obtained in the processes
of engineering design and production. (For further definition, see the chapter
on Engineering Research in the United States: An Overviewed.
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ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
149
States as a world leader in science and technology. The federal
government's involvement in research derives from its responsibil-
ity for national security and from its obligation to provide for the
general health and welfare of its citizens. The scale of research in
emerging technological fields is often too large for private compa-
nies to undertake; in general there ~ also too little incentive for
industry to support extensive long-range engineering research. In
addition, areas of general public health and welfare such as environ-
mental quality are not normally targets of industry research. Yet
the public interest demands that this type of research be pursued.
Therefore, regardless of where it is performed at universities,
in federal or national laboratories, in industry, or elsewhere the
majority of research in these fields is funded by the federal govern-
ment. This federal support is especially prominent in the case of
fundamental research.
A basic premise on which the federal government must plan
for research in the energy field in particular is that the demand
for energy in the United States will continue to grow over the
long term, notwithstanding very significant efforts in the direc-
tion of conservation and efficient energy use. Recent studies have
shown that whereas total U.S. energy consumption is no longer
directly coupled to the gross national product (GNP), there Is
still a demonstrable direct correlation between the consumption
of electrical energy and the GNP (Whittaker, 1984~. At the same
time, the mix of basic energy resources available to support eco-
nomic activity and growth may change. Clearly, it ~ in the na-
tional interest that aggressive engineering research continue on
ways to utilize energy more efficiently in a variety of forms, and
in a wide range of industrial, commercial, residential, and trans-
portation applications. Improvements in this area could partly
compensate for the growth in energy consumption brought about
by an expanding population that aspires to a higher, more energy-
intensive standard of living. On a worldwide basis, the growth in
the consumption of energy in less developed nations, with their
exploding populations and rising expectations, Is likely to be even
more dramatic.
Perhaps the most important implication of this energy-demand
growth is that a range of energy options must foe maintained, so
that disruptions in the availability or economics of any particular
fuel do not leave the United States in a vulnerable portion. GIob-
ally as well as nationally, the impact of [ong-term energy growth
OCR for page 150
150
DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
on the environment will also be significant, and must be carefully
addressed. Further steps must be taken in assessing the adverse
environmental consequences of energy production, as the nature
of some "side effects" is still unknown. For example, tacit rains
and the "greenhouse ejects currently are potentially major en-
vironmental concerns associated with fossil fuel utilization; the
resolution of these issues is particularly important for determining
the relative role that coal will play in the future. Likewise, dis-
posal of radioactive wastes remains a major problem with nuclear
energy. All three of these concerns are characterized by serious
uncertainties about the severity of the problems, and by the fact
that there are political as well as technical dimensions to their
solutions. Although these particular problems differ significantly
in terms of their geographical spread and time scales of concern,
they all could potentially alter future costs and patterns of energy
utilization in this country and elsewhere. Prudence thus demands
that vigorous R&D continue on alternative energy sources (includ-
ing nuclear fusion and solar power), to ensure as wide a range of
future options as possible. Industry must continue to be a strong
partner with government in the support and performance of this
area of R&D.
The same reasoning applies in the case of mineral resources,
for which new technology could give the United States a wider
range of sources and options. At present, adequate technology for
efficient and safe mining and processing of low-grade, finely dis-
persed domestic ores does not exist. There Is very little engineering
research being done either to develop such technology or to build
the fundamental knowledge base required for its development.
The range and potential size of these problems, and the diffi-
culty of solving them, suggests that viewing energy, minerals, and
the environment as separate and distinct concerns is no longer a
workable approach. Now more than ever before there is a need
for the federal government to identify tradeoff and achieve bat-
ance between energy and resource utilization, on the one hand,
and environmental protection on the other. Developing the needed
technical information and tools for assessing such tradeoffs will
require input from the various engineering disciplines as well as a
number of scientific fields.
Unfortunately, government policies in a specific area (e.g.,
energy, environment, etc.), once officially promulgated, often are
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ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
151
interpreted in an absolute sense that provides little room for trade-
offs among the environment, energy supply, jobs, economic devel-
opment, national defense, quality of life, and so on. The federal
government's support of research should be structured so as to
provide an informed basis for making those tradeoffs and balanc-
ing the many competing interests and requirements that converge
on these vital areas.
NEED FOR LONG-TERM CONTINUITY IN
SUPPORT OF RESEARCH
In energy, minerals, and the environment, the federal govern-
ment's support of engineering research sometimes seems chaotic—
indeed, this is more often the case in these fields than in any other.
New issues, sudden crises, alla changing expectations frequently
alter the research priorities of federal agencies and bring about
erratic changes in emphasis. These shifts occur at the expense of
the knowledge base needed to address future problems. The mis-
sion agencies are most subject of all to the shifting political winds.
Although it may be politically attractive to Force feeds selected
areas of research in hopes of achieving quick fixes, national inter-
ests in energy, mineral, and environmental resources will be best
served by a national commitment to a long-term, stable research
environment. The crises that frequently stimulate engineering re-
search in these fields may be so compeDing that, for political
reasons, they cannot be ignored. However, such ~quick-response"
initiatives should be undertaken as add-one to continuing and sta-
ble support of both fundamental and applied engineering research.
There are undoubtedly many ways to ensure a more stable
commitment to research. One possible means would be to increase
the NSF's research budget in these areas. Long-term research needs
in these areas might be better served if the NSF were to take a greater
Tole in fundamental and exploratory engineering research programs
that the mission agencies do not see as part of their objectives. The
mission agencies, for their part, need to recognize that the training
of researchers over the long term is not exclusively the NSF's
province; each agency also has a responsibility here. Therefore,
another very useful step would be for mission agencies to allocate,
on a multiyear basis, a fixed percentage of their budget to university
engineering research in appropriate fields. This approach would
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
improve stability in both education and research, and would help
attract the best available talent to these fields.
RETHINKING ROLES
The role of the government in supporting large-scale research
facilities also needs to be carefully considered. In many areas,
federal participation in scale-up projects, along with significant
private support where obtainable, can substantially accelerate the
development of new technology. Also of special urgency is the need
to address the relative research roles of the universities and the
various federal and national laboratories working in the energy,
mineral, and environmental fields. Universities not only provide
diverse fundamental and applied research ideas and results, but
are also essential to the education of the research engineers and
scientists needed to maintain a strong national research establish-
ment and to enhance industrial innovation. For this reason, the
tendency to protect the federal and national laboratories at the
expense of university research during budget reductions (see, for
example, Office of Science and Technology Policy, 1983) must be
resisted. The importance of this issue has been confirmed in many
recent reports, including a series of studies by the Energy Research
Advisory Board of the U.S. Department of Energy (1985~.
Consideration might also be given to emulating more widely
the Japanese process of "bottom-up" (or participative) planning
of R&D, at least to the extent of gathering information and sift-
ing through the various ideas, rather than allowing major policy
decisions on R&D activities to be dictated by the most recent
perturbation In the budgeting process. Although this kind of ac-
tivity is already going on to some extent, it should be more widely
and systematically adopted for energy, mineral, and environmental
R&D planning.
Trues Dete~n~ng the
Health of Energy, Mineral, and
Environmental Systems Research
The health of engineering research in energy, mineral, and en-
vironmental systems can be assessed by identifying the objectives
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ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
171
burners, sorbent injection systems, and fluidized bed boilers (both
atmospheric and pressurized), which incorporate environmental
controls into the basic design of the plant represent important ar-
eas of research, as does the development and integration of other
precombustion, combustion, and postcombustion control technol-
ogy. Research should focus on: (1) basic process mechanisms
(e.g., combustion, multiphase transport, etc.~; (2) the engineering
of process components; and (3) the optimization of overall sys-
tem designs, to improve overall plant efficiency and reliability and
reduce adverse multimedia (i.e., air, water, land) environmental
impacts.
EFFICIENT USE OF ENERGY
Energy conservation and the efficient use of energy have re-
ceived increased attention as energy costs have risen. Energy-
intensive industries such as refineries, chemical plants, mines, and
smelters have had a compelling incentive to increase the efficiency
of their energy usage. Many of the improvements have come
from operating changes, some from capital expenditures to in-
stall more efficient equipment, and some from the introduction of
advanced digital computer-based process control systems. Com-
mercial buildings and houses also have reduced energy usage, pri-
marily for heating and cooling. Sustained research supporting the
development of more energy-efflcient utilization systems and de-
vices for electricity (motors, control systems, heating and cooling
systems, etc.), fossil fuels (engines, boilers, chemical processes,
etc.), and solar energy is essential. Successful efforts in these areas
will delay the need for constructing additional energy generating
and production facilities, and may be more cost effective than
constructing new facilities to increase the energy supply.
FUEL QUALITY
Economic conversion of low-grade or low-quality fuels (e.g.,
tar sands, refuse, and fossil fuels with high suIphur or metallic
content) into electricity or other energy forms is very important
for effective utilization of domestic reserves. Thermal energy con-
version equipment (boilers, burners, gasifiers, etc.) capable of
efficiently utilizing low-grade fuels also must be developed. These
are essential components of any program to reduce dependence on
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
foreign energy resources. An improved understanding of process
mechanisms is particularly essential to progress in this area.
EXTENDING PLANT LIFETIMES
An important emerging area of energy-related engineering re-
search is the issue of extending the lifetime and upgrading the per-
formance and reliability of existing energy conversion and power
generation facilities. In the face of increasingly higher costs for
new facilities, there are strong incentives to seek ways of modi-
fying, repowering, or upgrading existing plants with the goal of
extending their useful lifetimes by 2~30 years (i.e., beyond the
nominal historical lifetimes of about 35-45 years). Research is-
sues are generally related to materials behavior, methods of boiler
repowering, electrical and mechanical equipment reliability, and
design of turbine generators and environmental control systems.
In nuclear plants, the critical issue is the demonstration of anneal-
ing to remove radiation-induced effects in certain key components,
such as the pressure vessels, coolant piping, and control systems.
A focused program of federal research, in conjunction with indus-
trial support, could be important in providing basic and applied
research support for many facets of this problem.
ENERGY STORAGE
Finally, improved energy storage systems (for electricity, syn-
thetic gas, etc.) is another area in which innovative research is
needed. Load-leveling through the use of storage systems could
significantly delay the need to construct new energy facilities by
increasing the utilization (Ioad factor) of existing facilities.
Research on all of these subjects must address their technical
and economic viability, while bringing full consideration to the
need for acceptable ways to handle or satisfactorily mitigate their
environmental impacts. In the case of certain technologies, pilot
facilities must be built and operated to validate performance and
costs, to establish a baseline of environmental impact data, and
to demonstrate the successful mitigation of such impacts. There
is an appropriate role here for federal participation (direct or
indirect) to ensure that promising options are effectively brought
to commercialization.
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ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
MINERAL RESOURCES
173
Mineral resources have contributed significantly to the devel-
opment of a strong industrial base in the United States. Common
characteristics of the mineral deposits that are now being ex-
ploited are that they lie deep in the ground, are low in grade, and
are difficult to process. Challenges that the mineral industry in
the United States wit! face in the future include finding new deep
ore bodies and developing technology for the processing of increas-
ingly low-quality, finely dispersed ores. Mining and processing of
these ores will have to use energy efficiently and be accomplished
within stringent environmental constraints. Most important, the
technology has to be made more efficient than it currently is in
order for domestic products to be econorn~cally competitive in the
international market.
Mineral resource recovery generally involves extracting the
material out of the earth, cornminut~ng it to a size such that the
mineral grains are liberated from each other, and then separating
the valuable mineral particles from the waste rock. With complex,
fine-grained ores, very fine particles that resist treatment are often
produced. Better technology ~ required to improve size-reduction
technologies, the processing of fine particles, and the disposal of
wastes. In some cases, chemical treatment of complex ores may
afford an opportunity to exploit them. In certain cases, in-situ
methods can replace the ruining and the physical concentrating
step altogether.
Because existing mining and processing techniques are not
fully adequate for exploiting many of our low-quality domestic re-
serves, there is a great need to develop new techniques. Important
opportunities in this regard are
. the development of sensors and instrumentation for explo-
ration, remote control mining, and metallurgical operations;
. the continued development of computer-assisted design and
systems analysis of the entire mining and extraction process;
.
the application of new technology based on photoelectro-
chemical, colloidal, and biological processes for developing new
concentration and effluent-treatment techniques; and
. the development of a fundamental data base on the be-
havior of rocks and minerals during fracture (mining or crushing),
dissolution (solution mining and hydrometallurgy), and adsorb
tion and flocculation (mineral beneficiation).
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
S ENS ORS
Research in the development of new geophysical methods-
for example, electromagnetic sensing- should be undertaken to
provide technology useful in exploring for ore bodies that lie sev-
eral hundred feet below the surface. Development of sensors and
remote control equipment for automatic mining is important both
to enhance productivity and to reduce health and safety hazards.
There is a similar need for sensors in computer control of all
mineral processing operations, including grinding, classification,
flotation, flocculation, and electrowinning. In addition, we need to
develop a better understanding of the physicochemical behavior of
particles, aggregates, and dissolved species of minerals as well as
the impurities in process streams.
Eventually, the domestic rn~neral industry may have to go
to the ocean and its floor for many minerals; yet the technology
for exploring, mining, and processing such deposits is far from
established. A better understanding of the origin and localization
of deposits should help in identifying the best sites for exploration,
whether on the ocean floor or on land.
SYSTEMS ANALYSIS AND CONTROL
Design and systems analysis of the entire mining and extrac-
tion process to increase the overall efficiency of mining is equally
important. It will be necessary to formulate quantitative descrip-
tions of the operations used in mining and processing, with par-
ticular attention to possible complex interactions between various
operations on different scales. A major overall consequence of de-
creasing ore grade has been an increase in the scale of mining and
processing operations. However, scale-up principles are not yet
adequately established. It is important to develop the required
basis for scale-up as well as scale-down for process equipment.
Such clevelopments should help increase the productivity of mines
and mills.
IN-SITU LEACHING AND BURNING
On a larger scale, new opportunities exist with in-situ op-
erations using leaching and burning techniques. In this regard,
information needs to be developed on the geological structures
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ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
175
involved, as well as the techniques for preparing the entire body to
accept and use the leaching solutions. Methods to better delineate
subsurface geological structures or underground fracturing of rock
are required. An understanding of the flow of solutions through
geological pores also needs to be developed so that possibilities
for groundwater contamination can be estunated with sufficient
reliability.
COLLOIDAL AND BIOLOGICAL PROCESSES
Leaching also holds great promise for the processing of very
Tow-quality ores, particularly using microorganisms genetically en-
gineered for increased efficiency and for higher toxicity tolerance.
Interdisciplinary research is needed to derive information on the
electrochemical and colloidal behavior of mineral fines and mi-
croorga~isms in various media. Interaction among microbiologists,
physical chemists, and mineral engineers should prove fruitful in
this endeavor.
A complete understanding of the surface and colloidal chemical
interactions of fine particles in aqueous media containing various
electrolytes, surfactants, and polymers is needed in order to utilize
fully certain techniques based on selective aggregation that have
emerged recently for the treatment of ultrafines. Selective floc-
culation processes hold tremendous potential when followed by
flotation, elutriation, and so on. Currently, however, applica-
tion is limited to a couple of ore bodies and it has become clear
that further development will depend on our understanding of all
combinations of particle/particle/water/oil/gas interactions in the
· .
su omicron size range.
SIZE REDUCTION METHODS
Similar problems exist in developing efficient techniques for
comminuting the mineral to the fine size range suitable for the
abo~rementioned processes. The notoriously poor efficiency of com-
munition processes in terms of energy consumption and indiscrim-
inate intragranular fracture continues to be the most serious hin-
drance for the effective processing of mineral raw materials. Here
again, what is required is the development of an understanding of
the microprocesses involved in the fracture of mineral grains and
transport of the particles in the grinding and ciasmfication streams,
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
along with an understanding of the manner in which these pros
cesses are influenced by changes in the hydrodynamic and chemical
properties of the environment around the particles.
References
Croff, A. G., J. O. Blomeke, and B. C. Finney. Actinide Partitioning-
Transmutation Program, Final Report: One Overall Assessment. Oak
Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, June 1980.
Department of Energy. Guidelines for DOE Long-Term Civilian Research and
Development Vols. (DOE/S-0046~. Report of the Energy Research
Advisory Board, December 1985.
Engineering Manpower Commission. Engineering Enrollments: 1979, 1980,
1981, 1982, 1983. New York: American Association of Engineering
Societies, 1984.
Environmental Protection Agency. EPA Office of Exploratory Research
Grant Program, bookkeeping data. Personal communication, 1985.
National Research Council. Manapcmcnt of Hazardous Wastce: Research and
Dcvelopmer~ Needs (NMAB-398~. Washington, DC: National Academy
Press, 1983.
National Research Council. Research Priorities for Advanced Fossil Energy
Technologies. National Research Council, Energy Engineering Board,
1984.
National Science Foundation. Science Indicators- 1982. Washington, DC:
National Science Foundation, 1983.
National Science Foundation. Federal Funds for Research and Development-
Detailed Historical Tables: Fiscal Years 1955-1985. Division of Science
Resources Studies. Washington, DC: National Science Foundation,
undated.
Norman, Colin. The science budget: A dose of austerity. Scicnec 227:72~728,
1985.
Office of Science and Technology Policy. Report of the White House Science
Council, Federal Laboratory Review Panel. Washington, DC: Office of
Science and Technology Policy, 1983.
Whittaker, R. Electricity: Lever on Industrial productivity. EPRI Journal
9~8~:1~14, 1984.
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ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
Appendix
Responses to the Engineering Research
Board's Request for Assistance Mom
Universities, Professional Societies, and
Federal Agencies and Laboratories
177
Requests for assistance were sent by the Engineering Research
Board to a number of universities, recipients of Presidential Young
Investigator Awards, professional societies, federal agencies, and
federal and national laboratories in order to obtain a broader
view of engineering research opportunities, research policy needs,
and the health of the research community. Some of the responses
included comments on engineering research aspects of energy, re-
sources, and the environment; these were reviewed by this panel to
aid in its decision-making process. The pane} found the responses
most helpful and wishes that it were possible to individually thank
all those who took the time to make their views known. Because
that Is not practical, we hope nevertheless that this small acknowI-
edgment might convey our gratitude.
Responses on aspects of energy, resources, and the environ-
ment were received from individuals representing 44 different or-
ganizations (Table A-1~: 21 universities (including 4 represented
by recipients of NSF Presidential Young Investigator Awards), 9
professional organizations, and 14 federal agencies or federal and
national laboratories. Some comments covered specific aspects of
the panel's scope of activities, whereas others provided input on a
variety of subjects.
RESEARCH NEEDS
Research needs that were recommended as being of high pri-
ority are summarized in Table A-2. In the energy field, the single
most frequently cited priority was for research on coal. Coal was
recognized as a major energy resource within the United States,
and one that is in need of much greater development. Almost
all recommendations on this topic dealt with the environmental
problems associated with sulfur and nitrogen in coal as it relates
to acid rain, and emphasized the need for better ways to clean coal
or to remove oxides of nitrogen and sulfur after coal combustion.
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DIRECTIONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
TABLE A-1 Organizations Responding to Information Requests Relevant to
Energy, Minerals, and Environmental Systems Research
UNIVERSITIES
Cornell University
Duke University
Northwestern University
Princeton University
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
Syracuse University
Texas A&M University
University of Arizona
University of California, Davis
University of California, Los Angeles
University of Florida
University of Georgia
University of Hawaii
University of Illinois—Urbana/
Champaign
University of Michigan
University of Minnesota
University of Missouri, Columbia
University of Pennsylvania
University of Texas at Austin
University of Utah
University of Wisconsin
PROFESSIONAL ORGANIZATIONS
American Academy of Environmental
Engineers
American Chemical Society
American Institute of Chemical
Engineers
American Society of Civil Engineers
American Society of Mechanical
Engineers
Council for Chemical Research
Institute of Industrial Engineers
Society of Engineering Science, Inc.
The Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, Inc.
AGENCIES AND LABORATORIES
Air Force Office of Scientific Research
Argonne National Laboratory
Brookhaven National Laboratory
Jet Propulsion Laboratory
E. O. Lawrence Livermore National
Laboratory
NASA Ames Research Center
NASA Goddard Space Flight Center
NASA Langley Research Center
NASA Lewis Research Center
National Center for Atmospheric
Research
Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Office of Naval Research
Pittsburgh Energy Technology Center
(DOE)
Sandia National Laboratories
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ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
TABLE A-2 Energy, Minerals, and Environmental Research Areas Most
Frequently Cited by Responding Organizations
Research
Area
Number of
Organizations
Citing
Energy
Coal
E`ission and fusion
Alternative sources
Storage, transmission, efficiency
Environmental tradeoffs
Environment
12
10
16
14
13
Contaminant movement, fate, effects
Hazardous waste control and management 9
Acid rain
Groundwater contamination
Water reuse, conservation
Monitoring and sensors
Combustion processes
27
11
12
13
11
15
179
Many comments concerned the need for more research on combus-
tion technology, air cleaning processes, and the movement, fate,
and effects of contaminants.
Research on nuclear fission and fusion was recommended by
several respondents as a major alternative to fossil fuels, consid-
ering both the environmental problems associated with fossil fuels
and the long-term problem of limited energy resources. Many
respondents were concerned with the dependency of the United
States on other nations for fuel, the ~rnpact it could have on indus-
trial development, and related strategic problems. The need for
a diverse energy supply was noted by many, with several recom-
mending the development of alternative sources, including solar
energy. For similar reasons, energy conservation, efficiency in en-
ergy conversion, and better methods for storing and transporting
energy were frequently mentioned.
The majority of respondents noted that environmental con-
cerns were associated with the development of most major forms of
energy, and that energy development had to go hand-in-hand with
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DIREC17ONS IN ENGINEERING RESEARCH
safeguards against environmental deterioration. Consequently, re-
search in environmental areas associated with energy development
was frequently given high priority.
Regarding engineering research on environmental questions,
there was a general need expressed for more knowledge about
the movement, fate, and effects of chemicals in the environment,
including the air, land, and both surface and groundwater. Re-
sponclents believed that this is an important avenue for research
that will have significant impacts in all technological areas of de-
velopment. Associated with this need was the need for research
on hazardous waste control and management, and chemicals asso-
ciated with acid rain and groundwater contarn~nation. A frequent
recommendation was for research on combustion processes asso-
ciated with burning coal, hazardous wastes, and other materials,
as well as in vehicle transportation. The limited water resources
in many areas of the country resulted in several recommendations
for research on water reuse and conservation. In addition, many
respondents expressed a need for better monitoring tools to track
pollutants in the environment, and also for sensors that could
be used to discover and track contaminants through treatment
processes and in the environment.
POLICY AND HEALTH ISSUES
Whereas most of the responses addressed priority research
needs, several respondents did reflect on policy issues. Concerns
were frequently expressed about the recent decreases in funding
for basic and long-term engineering research in both the energy
and the environmental fields. In this regard, several respondents
noted that the national laboratories are obtaining a greater share
of the remaining funds, leaving the university research programs
vulnerable and in a state of declining health. The significant ad-
verse impact this would have on the important role of universities
in educating research engineers needed for the future was pointed
out a number of times. Some also believed the recently established
NSF engineering research centers would lead to less funding being
available to researchers at universities or in programs not linked
to the centers. Also of concern were the fluctuations in research
funding that make continuity of research programs difficult to
sustain.
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ENERGY, MINERAL, AND ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
181
Many of the research needs and issues of policy and health
addressed by the respondents were similar to those noted by pane!
members. The broadened perspective provided by the survey re-
sponses was most beneficial In the panel's deliberations.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
energy conversion
