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Lxccutlvc gummed
This century has witnessed tremendous
advances in OH herds of human endeavor,
particularly the sciences. Our daily lives
have been enriched, our standard of living
improved, and the average h~ span pro-
longed. This report examines the changing
interface between agriculture and human
health tam gelds that have been progress-
ing geometAcaHy during this century and
the role of animal products in the diet.
Animal products contribute more than
third of the calories and between ~ third
and aH of the other major nutrients in the
Cod supply. They also contribute more than
half of the total fat, three-~urths of the
saturated fatty acids, and all the cholesterol,
Mod components that may adversely Tact
an individunfs health.
The Mod industry in the Ended States
began during the late nineteenth and early
twentieth centuries, Then the population
began to shiR Com rural communizes to
urban centers. Early Mod companies up-
phed the scientific knowledge of the day to
produce products that would meet the needs
of the consumer? changing he-style. ~ur-
ing those early years, the major innovations
in the industry included canning, reRi~er
ution, and Fc~'in~cchniqll~s that arc
taken far granted today.
bc major public heath pr~LLms ~ the
turn of the century Aura very dirt koln
those scan today. Nutr~ionu1 deGciencics
and incus discuses mare responsible far
latest of the disaLiLty JI1] death. With the
implementation of phallic health measures
and the development and widespread rise
of antibiotics and vaccines, moist oF the
infectious diseases prevalent decades a~o
have been J1 hut eradicated today. Im-
prov~m~nts in economy status Bong with
the enrichment and ~rOAcation of ~ variety
of Mods and improvements in product quad
fly and disthhution have reduced the oc-
currence of nuthtiona1 deficiencies in the
Unhed States to ~ pectin of That was
commonplace 9Q years ago.
The nutrit~n-related health problems cx-
perienced by ~ large segment of the L. S.
population today arise Tom the rjvercon-
sumption of b~ saturated fatty acids, and
ch~desterol. For another group the Inuin
dietary problems canter around undercon-
sumption of iron, calcium, and calories. The
incidence of nutr~ion-reluted health proh-
l~ms is si~niOcuIlt, Pectins either directly
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2
or indirectly nearly every American family.
For example, it has been estimated that 34
million adults in the United States are
overweight; nearly 1 million adults die each
year of cardiovascular disease;* IS million
to 20 million adults are afflicted by osteo-
porosis; 8 million adults and 12 million
children go hungry due to inadequate diets
(Physician Task Force on Hunger in. Amer-
ica, 1987~; and iron deficiency has been
cited as the most common form of childhood
anemia.
The following specific target levels for
caloric intake ant] nutrients in the diet were
chosen by the Committee on Technological
Options to Improve the Nutritional Attri-
butes of Animal Products on the basis of
the dietary recommendations of major na-
tional health organizations and the health
findings of federal surveys. These targets
are used as the foundation of this report
and the committee's analysis and recom-
menciations.
· Caloric intake matcher! to individual
needs and appropriate to achieve and main-
tain desirable body weight (American Can-
cer Society, 1984; American Heart Associ-
ation, 1986; National Institutes of Health,
1984; National Research Council, 1980, 1982;
Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health
ant! the Surgeon General, 1979; U.S. De-
partment of Agriculture/U.S. Department
of Health and Human Services, 1985; U. S.
Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and
Human Needs, 1977~;
· 30 percent or less of calories from fat
for adults (American Cancer Society, 1984;
American Heart Association, 1986; National
Institutes of Health, 1984; National Re-
search Council, 1982~;
· 10 percent or less of calories from
* In 1985, 948,145 people in the United States died
of cardiovascular disease, including 771,169 from dis-
eases of the heart, 153,050 from cerebrovascular dis-
eases, and 23,926 from atherosclerosis; 461,563 indi-
viduals died from cancer (National Center for Health
Statistics, 1987~.
DESIGNING FOODS
saturated fatty acids; 10 percent or less of
calories from polyunsaturates] fatty acids;
and 15 percent or less of calories from
monounsaturatec] fatty acids for adults
(American Heart Association, 1986~;
· 300 mg or less of cholesterol per day
for adults (American Heart Association, 1986~;
· Calcium intake of the Recommended
Dietary Allowances (RDA) for age and sex
(National Research Council, 1980~; and
· Iron intake of the RDA for age and sex
(National Research Council, 1980~.
These targets are chosen by the commit-
tee as constituting the consensus of dietary
and nutrition recommendations made by
the government and nongovernment agen-
cies cited. It is not the intention of the
committee to establish new dietary guide-
lines. The Food ant] Nutrition Board of the
National Research Council is currently un-
dertaking a major study of diet and health
issues, and a new National Research Council
report may eventually be published that
makes specific recommendations.
In evaluating how well the current U.S.
foot] supply and marketplace options match
these target levels, the committee relied
upon several sources of data. Food supply
data (also known as per capita disappearance
(lata) from 1965 to 1985 provi(le(l informa-
tion on tren(ls for individual commodities.
Federal dietary survey data from 1977 to
1978 and 1985 were used to study dietary
habits for selected segments of the popu-
ration. (The Nationwide Food Consumption
Survey is conducted every 10 years. The
data from the 1977 to 1978 are used in this
report, as well as data from the linking
survey in 1985.) Data on supermarket food
sales for 1984 and 1985 provided insight on
the latest trends in the marketplace. In
addition, the nutritional compositions of
individual animal products, both traditional
and modified versions, were evaluated.
Food supply trends varied markedly from
product to product during the Midyear ne
_ ~ r . ^^ r . ~ '~ ~ ~ ~
You tram ~o to ~ Ace. ~ nere was a rise in
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EXEC UTIVE S UMMARY
the consumption of some reduced or natu-
rally low-fat animal products, such as low-
fat milk and fish, but there was increased
use of high-fat foods, such as hard processed
cheese and baking and frying fats of both
vegetable and animal origin. One of the
fastest growing food items, according to
dietary survey data and supermarket sales,
was meat mixtures entrees containing one
or more types of meat, poultry, or fish as a
major ingredient. The intake of processed
foods in general also increased; consumers
were eating more frequent, smaller meals
but buying foods that required less prepa-
ration time.
These trends indicate a shift in the con-
sumption of fats, with a decrease in the
intake of visible, separable hits and an in-
crease in the intake of fats in processed
foods such as mixtures, baked goods, carr~v-
out food items, and partially prepared foods
that require little additional preparation at
home.
The committee concluded that, overall,
Americans consume too much fat. Fat in
foods, whether present in the food's original
state, as with well-marbled beef, or added
during preparation, such as with deep frying
in fat, adds calories, saturated fatty acids,
and cholesterol. Conversely, the removal of
fat from a food lowers its caloric, cholesterol,
and fatty acid contents, and favorably alters
its nutritional composition by increasing its
other nutrients in relation to its caloric
value.
There is a movement among food pro-
ducers, processors, and manufacturers in
the United States toward lowering the fat
content of animal products. But at present,
this mostly consists of the physical removal
of fat at one point in the food production
process (for example, closely trimmed retail
cuts of beef) with the reintroduction of the
trimmed fat at another point (for example,
French fries fried in beef tallow). The com-
mittee believes that economic, marketing,
and research policies should be redefined
to encourage the production of leaner ani
3
mats and the processing and manufacturing
of lower fat animal products by economically
discouraging the production of fat in live
animals and their carcasses and the use of
fat in food products. From a research stand-
point, this involves the further development
and practical application of growth pro-
moters and repartitioning agents in live
animals to shift the utilization of nutrients
from fat deposition to protein accretion
while enhancing growth rate. In production,
changes in such policies as standards of
identity are necessary to facilitate the man-
ufacture and marketing of lower fat animal
products. Standards of identity are an es-
tablished range of mandatory ingredients
for certain foods such as catsup, mayonnaise,
frankfurters? and bologna that do not have
to appear on the product label.
The U. S. food industry has responded to
the consumer s demands for variety, con-
venience, and taste by providing an ever-
expanding array of options in the market-
place. Supermarket sales indicate that con-
sumers are willing to try new products,
including new versions of traditional foods,
even when priced at a premium. However,
consumers may not be aware of the quality
of nutrition they are trading for convenience
and at what price. Survey data indicate that
consumers are confused about grades of
beef, product labeling, and the content of
food products and are demanding more
detailed and clearer information about the
products they buy and the foods they eat.
The trends signify that the marketplace is
responding, despite current limitations.
The present grading system for retail
meats is not only costly and inefficient but
it encourages the overfattening of beef and
lamb (but not pork). Consumer demand for
leaner animal products must reach the pro-
ducer so that excessive amounts of fat are
not added to any point in the food chain.
Trimming of fat at slaughter or at purchase
is only a partial, short-term response. The
real solution lies in the production of leaner
animals.
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4
CHANGES IN POLICY
The committee makes 18 policy recom-
mendations covering the areas of produc-
tion, grading, labeling, standards of iden-
tity, point-of-purchase information, sources
of data, advertising and promotion, the
government's role in nutrition education,
and integrates] research ant! education pro-
grams. A principal finding is that public
policy influences consumer choice. New
policies are now needed to sustain the
positive trends evident among consumers
and throughout the animal product indus-
tries, trends like nutrition education pro-
grams in supermarkets, closer retail trim of
meats, and the growing array of lower fat
animal product options. The committee's
goals are to provide consumers the oppor-
tunity to exercise personal choice in the
marketplace, to encourage the clevelopment
of a range of products consistent with those
choices, and to ensure sufficient consumer
education and information to make those
choices informed decisions.
The starting point is for producers and
their industry associations to recognize the
need to understand marketplace trends ant]
the role of foods in a healthy cliet and to
implement appropriate animal feeding,
breeding, en c] selection programs. They
should also support public policy reforms
that wfl} facilitate progress towarc] the shared
goals of offering consumers a consistently
high-quality product at the lowest possible
price.
The Grading System
The committee makes several recommen-
dations regarding the current grading sys-
tem. First, it supports the recent change in
the name of the Good grade to Select, to
provide the beef industry with an oppor-
tunity for improved marketing of beef with
less marbling than is found in Prime or
Choice. The objectives in adopting grading
system changes should be to provide con
DESIGNING FOODS
sumers with clearer, more accurate infor-
mation about the meat products they pur-
chase and to send to producers ant] packers
distinct economic signals on the types of
products consumers prefer. The current
system fails on both counts.
Second, the committee recommencis that
the U. S. Department of Agriculture (USDA)
carefully study the potential benefits of
changes in regulations to allow hot-fat trim-
ming at slaughter removal of the subcu-
taneous fat from the carcass immediately
after slaughter (thus, the term hot fat re-
ferring to the temperature of the carcass).
Such a change from current regulations
would! mean that price would be determined
from the pounds of carcass remaining after
trimming, in effect penalizing the producer
for additional fat.
A change in official USDA gracie standards
woul(1 be neede(l to uncouple the simulta-
neous determination of yield and quality
gra(les of a single carcass. Yield grades are
based on estimates of relative cutabflity,
that is, the yield of trimmed cuts from the
carcass. Yield gra(le 1 signifies the highest
comparative cutability Yield of trimme(1
wholesale or retail cuts as a percentage of
carcass weight), whereas yield! grade 4 for
pork carcasses and 5 for beef an(1 lamb
carcasses denotes the lowest relative cuta-
bility. Quality gracles such as Prime, Choice,
and Good/Select are based on estimates of
relative palatability (flavor, juiciness, and
tenderness) of the meat when cooked. The
uncoupling of yield and quality grades would
allow packers wishing to hot-fat trim on the
slaughter or dressing floor to still have
carcasses quality graded while giving other
packers the freedom to continue the current
practice of assigning both quality and yield
grades.
Before uncoupling is effected, the com-
mittee recommends that the USDA inves-
tigate methods such as ultrasound for reli-
ably determining carcass yield grade so that
yield grades of 4 and 5 (carcasses with a
higher amount of fat between cuts of meat)
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
american heart
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
can be detected and treated differently (for
example, muscle-boned to remove seam fat)
from yield grade 3, 2, and 1 carcasses, which
have less fat. The lean to fat ratio in the
meat as it would be prepared for retail
display is important to both retailer and
consumer. A rapid and economical method
for determining yield grade fir the propor-
tion of lean to fat tissue in carcasses would
make removal of fat at slaughter f'easil~le
without the yield grade uncertainty and the
risk of excessive seam fat in wholesale fir
retail cuts.
Labeling and Standards of Identity
Three of the committee's policy recom-
mendations involve labeling and standards
of identity. First, the committee agrees with
the Food and Drug Administration (FI)A)
that regulations should not restrict truthful
information at the point of purchase or on
food product packaging.
Second, the committee recommends that
use of the term Natural for meat products
be standardized in a manner similar to the
current FDA effort to standardize use of
terms in cholesterol labeling. In standard-
izing the term, care must be taken that use
of the term Natural not connote that meat
from animals otherwise designated is some-
how unnatural and thus unhealthy.
Finally, the committee recommends that
the USDA restrict use of the terms Light,
Lite, or Lean to products in the form that
would be presented to the retail consumer.
Certification of the relative leanness of car-
casses should not simply be carried over to
retail cuts as is now often done. Rather, use
of descriptive terminology on retail cuts
should require some objective standard for
the cut itself.
Information and Consumer Education
The creation of a wide range of market-
place options allows consumers maximum
flexibility in matching products to their own
dietary and life-style needs. However, for
5
the system to work eff'ectivelv? shoppers
must have the information needed for in-
formed choice. The information available
on labels is an important first step, but
additional information available at the point
of purchase should also lie promoted. The
committee recommends that the F1)A en-
co~ragc~ the development elf point-of'-pur-
chase information progralns (additional nu-
trition education inforInati~'n beyond that
mandated by law) in 1itrilt of the continued
<`rrowth in popularity of these pro-,rarms and
the demonstrated ~:illingIless of' retailers
and processors to supply information l~e-
~vond that given on the label. This could be
done by issuing, specific ~`ruidelilles for pro-
viding factual nlltritiol1 data WithOIlt jud
DESIGNING FOODS
prevention. Aside from the fact that such
claims may initiate mandatory nutrition la-
beling, the most recurrent problem is the
inability of manufacturers to document them.
The committee recommends that the pri-
vate sector seriously consider developing
advertising and promotional guidelines that
would restrict or eliminate the use of mis-
leacling claims or claims that specific foods
are cures for, or preventers of, diseases.
Government has a dual role in nutrition
education: communication of clear and ac-
curate nutrition information to consumers
and communication of up-to-date scientific
information and marketplace trends to pro-
ducers. Unfortunately, misinformation often
passes for scientific fact, particularly in the
mass media. Because ofthe many conflicting
claims and counterclaims made in the field
of nutrition, government agencies play a
vital role in separating fact from fallacy for
both consumers and producers. Organiza-
tions such as the Food and Nutrition Board
of the National Research Council ant] the
American Heart Association translate re-
search into practical information for use by
nutrition educators. The Food ant! Nutrition
Board's RDAs, which are widely used around
the world, are an example of this process.
USDA's Extension Service provides a na-
tionwide nutrition education system that
connects nutrition and agricultural con-
cerns. Through its vast network to nutrition
professionals, educators, scientists, and con-
sumer groups, it can effectively communi-
cate nutrition information to targeted au-
diences. The committee recommends that
federal agencies strive to reach consensus
positions that would enable them to speak
with one voice on nutrition and health
issues. The committee further recommends
a coordinated effort by the government to
dispel false notions among consumers and
encourages federal agencies and private in-
dustry to work together to deliver consumer
information.
One piece of information that is essential
to making dietary recommendations is the
level of fat consumed by the typical Amer-
ican. In the past, government ciata sources
may have inaccurately estimated the amount
of fat consumed, particularly fat of animal
origin. Attempts are currently under way
within the USDA to improve dietary survey
methodologies to more accurately reflect
actual intake. The committee commences
this and recommends that the food clisap-
pearance data also be moclified to better
reflect actual use. In abolition, the federal
government should] take steps to more ac-
curately distinguish and monitor the fatty
acic] composition of fats consumer! in the
diet. The committee also recommends that
the USDA obtain data on the fat content of
partially trimmed meats and, if possible, on
the percentage of consumers who trim their
meats completely, partially, or not at all.
Research and Development
The committee recommencis that all re-
search pertaining to animal agriculture take
a systems approach whenever possible. This
extends to the expenditure of funds raised
by producer groups through check-off pro-
grams. Check-off programs include a per-
head fee assessed when animals are slaugh-
tered. The organizations charged with col-
lecting check-off funds use the money for
special programs such as research or edu-
cation. Producer groups that have already
supported research projects along with their
promotion programs are to be commencle(l.
Such activity should be encouraged. The
committee recommends that producer check-
off programs include regular funding for
total systems research as it pertains to the
producer's products.
Government policies that may inhibit the
implementation of new technologies should
also be evaluated. It is imperative that the
United States maintain both the high quality
and stringent safety standards associated
with its foods and food products. However,
inhibition of research and development in-
itiatives in both public and private sectors
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
is occurring because of overly strict regu-
lations and an unwillingness to accept re-
search data from other countries. Currently,
food technology research conducted in an-
other country is not accepted in the United
States without being duplicated, which sig-
nificantly increases the cost of producing
new foods and food ingredients. The com-
mittee encourages a responsive retrulatorv
policy that dices n`'t inhibit creativity or
innovation.
RESEARCH RECOMMENDATIONS
f
The committee makes 1& research rec-
ommendations (see Chapter 6) covering such
areas as preharvest technology transfer, pre-
harvest research related to the reduction or
alteration of animal fat, and postharvest
technology. The committee concluded that
current pre- and postharvest technologies
provide ample opportunity for reducing the
fat content of animal products. Even though
some options are now being applied, others
have not yet been adopted heca~,.';e of high
costs, lack of demand, product labeling
standards, or, in some cases, the stability
of the product's quality (such as shelf life)
in the marketplace. Clearly, these problems
must be addressed through basic and ap-
plied research.
The more that is known about the basic
biology offactors controlling the partitioning
of nutrients into protein or fat in animals,
the higher the probability of changing these
processes through genetic or metabolic con-
trol. Just as animal biology is advancing, so
is our understanding of food science and
postharvest research needs. These research
advances are the basis for improved and
new foods composed of or containing animal
products.
Preharvest Technology
Several of the committee's recommen-
dations center on technologies that could
be applied before slaughter to alter the
7
composition of the animal during growth.
These recommendations include identifying
the cellular and molecular mechanisms that
control partitioning of feed nutrients into
fat or lean tissues and altering the fatty acid
composition and the lean to fat ratio of meat,
milk, and eggs through breeding, nutrition,
and management. In addition, the commit-
tee recommends implementing available
technologies for determining the fat and
protein contents of live animals and car-
casses.
Research is also recommended to deter-
mine the extent of genetic variation in the
cholesterol content of animals, the reduction
of oxidative rancidity of animal products
through feeding or management, and the
development of more cost-effective methods
of efficiently producing low-fat animal prod-
ucts by integrated production management
systems.
Postharvest Technology
Postharvest technologies to reduce fat in
animal products can be used satisfactorily
in many situations. However, these tech-
nologies are not without costs and are usu-
ally associated with some change in product
characteristics such as texture, flavor, and
shelf life. In addition (and depending on
the product and the changes) a variety of
regulatory and labeling issues must be ad-
dressed.
One of the main research recommenda-
tions echoes a previously discussed policy
change: the adoption of standards of identity
that would reflect today's technology and
consumer needs. Less prescriptive stand-
ards could permit beneficial applications of
new technologies to reduce the fat content
of animal products in new ways. The com-
mittee also recommends the use of tech-
nologies to remove fat at the earliest possible
stage in processing and to improve methods
to evaluate and monitor the resulting fat
content of the product after processing. The
use of non-fat or low-fat ingredients are
8
recommended to simulate the textural and
quality characteristics and properties of fat
and to alter the fatty acid composition of
processed animal products.
Several of the committee's recommen-
dations center around] altering the choles-
terol content of animal products during
processing. These include the use of mo-
lecular genetics en c] other biotechnologies
to generate new microorganisms to reduce
the cholesterol content of products through
fermentation and the use of selective ex-
traction to reduce both the cholesterol and
fat contents of processed animal products.
Sodium chioricle plays a critical role in
delaying microbial growth, providing flavor,
and contributing to the functional charac-
teristics of many processed products, but it
is also cited as being excessive in the Amer-
ican flier. The committee recommends that
methods be developed to safely and organ-
oleptically (taste and texture appeal) reduce
or replace sodium in manufactured animal
products.
Animal products have always been part
of the fundamental fabric of the American
diet, offering a rich array of choices, tastes,
ant! nutrients, and providing the very basis
of the traditional diet in this country. This
report presents a wide variety of information
and data through which to view the current
American diet and suggests directions for
its course in the future. Some of the changes
are relatively simple to implement; others
involve a coordinated effort between indus-
try and government. In all cases, the need
DESIGNING FOODS
to improve the composition of the foods in
our diets is evident, an(l the necessary
technology is within our grasp
REFERENCES
American Cancer Society. 1984. Nutrition and cancer,
cause and prevention. An American Cancer Society
special report. Ca A Cancer Journal for Clinicians
34(2):121-126.
American Heart Association. 1986. Dietary guidelines
for healthy adult Americans. Circulation 74:1465A.
National Center for Health Statistics. 1987. Advance
Report of Final Mortality Statistics, 1985, 36(5),
August 28. Hyattsville, Md.: Public Health Service.
National Institutes of Health. 1984. NIH Consensus
Development Statement on Lowering Blood Cho-
lesterol to Prevent Heart Disease, Vol. 5, No. 7.
Washington, D.C.: National Institutes of Health.
National Research Council. 1980. Recommended Di-
etary Allowances, 9th ed. Washington, D.C.: Na-
tional Academy Press.
National Research Council. 1982. Diet, Nutrition, and
Cancer. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press.
Office of the Assistant Secretary for Health and the
Surgeon General. 1979. Healthy People, the Sur-
geon General's Report on Health Promotion and
Disease Prevention. DHEW (PHS) Publication No.
79-55071. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Public Health
~ .
service.
Physician Task Force on Hunger in America. 1987.
Hunger Reaches Blue Collar America: An Unbal-
anced Recovery in a Service Economy. Boston:
Harvard School of Public Health.
U.S. Department of Agriculture/Health and Human
Services. 1985. Nutrition and Your Health: Dietary
Guidelines for Americans, 2nd ed. Home and Gar-
den Bulletin No. 232. Washington, D. C.: U. S.
Government Printing Office.
U.S. Senate Select Committee on Nutrition and Hu-
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