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OCR for page 278
Processing- Options for Improving the
Nutritional Value of Animal Products
ROBERT E. RUST
The issue of altering meat products to fit residual. It has been my experience that
dietary requirements must address these 125 ppmnitriteincurecibaconwillproduce
points:
1. Elect on product safety;
2. Effect on economics of manufacture;
3. Effect on storage life;
4. Effect on sensory characteristics such
as flavor, texture, and color; ant]
5. Product identity for example, a mor
tadelIa without dices of fat is no longer a
mortadelIa.
NITRATES AND NITRITES
Let us examine some of the areas where
dietary concerns have been expressed. Ni
trates and nitrites are one. About a decade
ago we agonized over the potential hazard
presented by these processing ingredients.
Nitrates largely passed out of the picture
once their mechanism of action was under
stood. Nitrites, in most products, have been
voluntarily reduced by processors. The cur
rent use level is 156 ppm, except for pumped
bacon, where it is 120 ppm.
In most cured meats, sausages, and lunch
eon meats, the addition of 156 ppm nitrite
will generally yield around 30 to 50 ppm
278
125 ppm - - -I -- 1- - - - -
residuals of less than 15 ppm, and probably
more like 10 to 12 ppm. Are these significant
from a dietary standpoint? Most likely not,
since most reliable estimates indicate that
nitrite intake from processed meats equals
only 3 to 5 percent of total dietary nitrite
intake.
Current U. S. Department of Agriculture
(USDA)-Food Safety Inspection Service
(FSIS) regulations (318.7) permit nitrite to
be used at the levels given in Table 1. It
might be wise for the USDA to bring these
regulations further into line with current
good manufacturing practice.
SALT
Salt (sodium chioricle) is a processing
adjunct about which I feel no definite con-
clusion can be reached that would justify a
recommendation to impose limits. To a
certain extent, the use of salt is self-limiting,
depending on consumer tastes. The general
trend toward lower salt levels in food has
forced the meat industry to reduce its in-
going levels. Although no general survey
OCR for page 279
PROCESSING OPTIONS
TABLE 1 Levels of Curing Agents for Products Other Than Bacon
279
Curing Agent
Dry Cure/
100 lb of
Meat (oz)
Sausage/
100 lb of
Meat (oz)
Curing Pickle/
100 gal, 10 percent
Pump (lb)
Sodium nitrate
Potassium nitrate
Sodium nitrite
Potassium nitrite
3.5
3.5
.0
.0
2.75
2.75
0.25
0.25
2
2
NOTE: In all cases, residuals shall not exceed 200 ppm calculated as sodium nitrite.
data are available, it has been my experience
that sodium levels in cooked sausage have
declined by perhaps 20 percent over the
past 10 years.
Sodium chloride performs three major
functions in a meat product: It helps pre-
serve it, it adds flavor, and it develops the
binding properties of the proteins. From a
preservation standpoint, the role of salt is
still critical in ciry cured meats such as hams
as well as in dry sausage. Salt also plays a
small role in shelf-life extension of cooked
sausages. Levels in these products are com-
monly 2 to 2.75 percent of the meat block*
used in formulation.
In Europe, a 2 percent salt addition is
customary, but distribution chains are much
shorter and shelf-life expectations much less
than in the Uniter] States. Through goof!
manufacturing practices, the United States
can, I believe, achieve adequate shelf-life.
However, there are those who would argue
that this is the low end of the safety limit.
It must be kept in mind that there are
certain interactions between salt and nitrite
* The notion of meat block is illustrated in the
following example. Say that in producing a batch of
frankfurters, you start with 100 pounds of meat. All
the adjuncts are calculated based on a percentage of
this 100 pounds. Thus, if you add 2.5 percent salt, 3.5
percent extender, 0.5 percent sugar, and 10 percent
water, you will end up with 116.5 pounds of finished
product. The actual salt level in the finished product
would therefore be 2.15 percent. (The curing ingre-
dients were deliberately omitted from this example.)
. , ~
in the inhibition of Clostridium botuZinum
that are significant from a public health
standpoint. Some research indicates an in-
creased clanger of toxin formation as salt
levels decrease; however, no clear-cut rec-
ommendations for minimum salt levels have
been proposed to date. Most other patho-
gens of major public health concern, such
as Staphylococcus species, are salt-tolerant
in the ranges being (liscussed, so salt re-
duction probably would have no significant
impact on their prevalence (still, the evi-
dence here is less than conclusive).
In terms of flavor, the preference for
sodium is an acquired taste that can be
mollified by total (lietary intake. As con-
sumers have reclucec! their sodium intake,
the meat industry has been obligates] to
follow suit. Proposals to substitute other
chiori~les (it is the chloride ion that is
significant) have encountered flavor prob-
lems. Potassium chloride, for instance, could]
perhaps partially substitute for sodium chIo-
ride but the bitter flavor is undesirable.
Furthermore, there is still the question of
whether adde(1 dietary potassium would
have any significant impact on health. The
effect of reclucec] sodium on flavor can be
somewhat compensated for by other flavor-
ings such as spices and spice extracts. There
are no hard-and-fast recommendations that
can be made here, since flavorings are a
highly variable consideration.
The role of salt in developing the binding
properties of proteins is critical. Actually,
this is twofold. First, sodium chloride ex
OCR for page 280
280
tracts the salt-soluble myofibrillar proteins,
which, in turn, encapsulate the fat particles as:
to form a stable "emulsion" or meat batter.
Second, it promotes the swelling of these
proteins to allow for exposure of more bond
ing sites for water binding. This is crucial
for the production of a stable sausage.
In practical terms, salt levels of much less
than 1.5 percent of the meat block are not
functional. Even then, optimum technology
must be exercised to make this level oper
ational. There are some significant interac
tions between sodium chloride and the
alkaline phosphates that improve the func
tioning of low sodium chloride. For the
most part, however, these alkaline phos
phates are mostly the sodium salts; hence,
actual sodium reduction is minimal. The
alkaline potassium phosphates currently al
lowed under USDA-FSIS regulations are
dipotassium phosphate, monopotassium
phosphate, potassium tripolyphosphate, and
potassium pyrophosphate. These are not
commonly used, though, because of solu
bility problems, flavor problems, and the
fact that they function somewhat less effec
tively than JO their sodium counterparts.
In dry cured products, particularly dry
and semi-dry sausage, the salt levels needed
for preservation become much more signif
icant. It appears that a level of 3 Dercent
ingoing, which translates to 4.25 to 5 percent
salt in the finished product, is optimum.
Only recently did the USDA recognize
levels less than 3.3 percent ingoing for
trichina inactivation. This recognition pro
vides a sliding scale of extended drying
times in proportion to ingoing salt levels.
However, it would be far better to exercise
trichina control through an identification
program or raw material control rather than
through processing treatment.
In addition to controlling trichina, it is
necessary to achieve a sufficiently high brine
concentration to inhibit microbial growth,
including the more salt-tolerant molds and
yeasts. A brine concentration of 12 percent
is generally considered necessary for shelf
APPENDIX
stability. Percent concentration is calculated
Percent salt
x 100.
Percent salt + Percent water
FAT
Reduction of caloric intake from fats,
particularly the saturatect tatty acids, is an-
other major area of concern. This discussion
does not focus on mollification of animal fat
depots by dietary or other means. Never-
theless, such modification must be looked
at in light of its effect on the manufacturing
characteristics of the meat raw materials,
such as flavor, texture, color, and suscep-
tibility to oxidation.
Reduction of fat in a processed meat
product is not as simple as it sounds. A
notable success in this area is the commer-
cial production of"95 percent fat free', hams.
This probably represents the ultimate in fat
reduction, since a muscle with all the visible
intermuscular fat removed still contains at
least 5 percent fat in the form of intramus-
cular fat and extractable intra- and inter-
cellular lipids.
In cooked sausage, such as a frankfurter,
the common accepted fat levels of 25 to 30
percent defy significant reduction without
sacrificing textural and other sensory prop-
erties. A few commercial attempts at
straightforward fat reduction have, in gen-
eral, resulted in a product with a distinct
rubbery texture ant! reduced consumer cle-
mand. If the reduction in textural charac-
teristics is to be overcome, other compo-
nents will have to be mo(lifiecl. For example,
the addition of water will offset the fat
reduction by softening the texture of the
product. Here, however, we encounter
USDA regulations that restrict water levels
in a product. Right now, the USDA does
not permit substitution of water for fat.
These interacting regulations need careful
examination. I would suggest regulating
product composition based on minimum
OCR for page 281
PROCESSING OPTIONS
protein rather than the current fat/water
maximums.
Another textural modification involves the
substitution of a nonbinding protein gen-
erally originating from a by-product source
for some of the fat. There has been success
in substituting 10 percent cooked pork skins
for 10 percent pork fat in dry sausage.
However, this has run afoul of regulatory
restrictions in labeling requirements. The
inclusion of mechanically separated meat
(MSM) has generally been shown to reduce
textural firmness, but, again, its labeling is
in fact restrictive to the point that most
processors assume that consumers will be
driven away from products containing MSM.
In its quest for truth in labeling, the USDA
may have erected barriers to intelligent
dietary modification of meat products.
Clearly, the whole area needs examination.
Regulatory tradition should not be allowed
to interfere with efforts at dietary modifi-
cation of meat products when such modifi-
cation is based on sound scientific data.
One promising area in the modification
of fat in processes] meat products is the
substitution of fats and oils of vegetable
origin for the animal fat. Through a tech-
nique common in Europe, that of pree-
mulsifying the fat with milk proteins such
as sodium caseinate or its calcium counter-
part, two-thirds of the animal fat has been
replaced with preemulsified vegetable oil
in a slicing bologna without any practical
reduction in sensory properties. Preemul-
sions are usually made up of eight parts oil,
eight parts water, and one part milk protein,
which in effect gives a finished emulsion
with approximately 48 percent fat.
It is likely that somewhat similar results
can be obtained with soy or blood plasma
proteins. Once again, though, USDA reg-
ulations restrict the inclusion of vegetable
fats and oils in meat products. Also, calcium
caseinate, despite its widespread use in
nonmeat products, is not on the Generally
Recognized As Safe list (as is sodium cas-
einate), and the USDA is reluctant to extend
281
approval for use until there is greater clar-
ification from the Food and Drug Admin-
istration.
Inclusion of stabilized preemulsions that
can effectively reduce fat content of the
"show fat" appears to be another area worth
pursuing. Again, the question of labeling
must be considered. A fat/water/protein
emulsion diced and incorporated as show
fat in a meat product would trigger labeling
problems under current regulations. Ob-
viously, labeling requirements are a signif-
icant stumbling block. What is needed,
above all, is a thorough scientific review of
labeling regulations and policies totally di-
vorced from emotion, tradition, and the
like.
LABELING
A few more words should be said on the
subject of labeling. I view the policies (or
lack thereof regarding such fanciful labels
as Lean and Lite as a regulatory quagmire
that is totally out of hand. There needs to
be a firm, definitive policy established that
would clarify these promotional labels, which
currently are being exploited to the confu-
sion of the consumer, despite the USDA's
recent attempts to clarify them.
Another labeling issue that comes to mind
is the USDA grades for beef and lamb.
These still place an unwarranted emphasis
on fat. Even though most responsible sci-
entists agree that only about 10 to 15 percent
of the palatability differences are explained
by the factors considered in USDA grades
for beef, this system is still in use. Clearly,
it is an emotionally charged issue that has
been debated extensively, but can't it be
resolved rationally? Personally, I wonder if
USDA grades of beef serve any useful pur-
pose, and I challenge this committee to
reach a consensus on this system, particu-
larly insofar as it hinders the consumer in
making wise decisions on selecting meat
and meat products. The application of pres-
ent USDA grade standards, particularly yield
OCR for page 282
282
grades, may be the major limitation to
processing developments such as immediate
postslaughter fat removal.
There appears to be very little that can
be done under current regulatory con-
straints to achieve mollification of meat
products through the inclusion of various
nutrients (that is, vitamins, minerals, and
the like). If I react current regulations cor-
rectly, the clirect inclusion of, say, thiamine
to a sausage product would not be approved.
At the very least it would trigger nutritional
labeling, an activity that is cumbersome and
often beyond the capabilities of the small
processor, since present USDA policy re-
quires a Partial Quality Control program as
a minimum. Even calcium, one of the nu-
trients whose inclusion appears to be a
"plus," is in fact restricted when it appears
as a component in mechanically separated
meat. Does this make sense, if, indeed,
additional calcium is an asset to our diets?
The United States is the only major de-
veloped country to restrict the incorporation
of blood in meat products. I can find no
sound scientific reason for this restriction.
Incleed, it makes little sense considering
that blood provides an excellent source of
such nutrients as iron and protein. Are we,
because of purely esthetic considerations,
ignoring some potential good sources of
nutrients? It woulc! seem so.
CONCLUSIONS
Our regulatory bodies too often base their
decisions on unsupported opinion an(1 es-
thetic considerations rather than scientific
fact. Are regulations in elect hampering
positive dietary mortification of meat and
meat products, especially insofar as proc-
essing adjuncts are concerned? This is a
APPENDIX
question that must be addressed. Following
is a list of specific considerations that must
be examined, as well as areas important for
research.
Considerations
1. Regulate composition of meat products
on the basis of a minimum protein standard,
thus allowing interchange of water/fat for
textural purposes.
2. Remove esthetic considerations from
labeling requirements (that is, flagging of
"variety meats," mechanically separates]
meats, and so on).
3. Change fat labeling to allow separation
and recombination of fats in manufactured
products.
4. Develop simplified procedures for nu-
tritional labeling to enable small processors
to apply nutritional labeling.
5. Set definitive standar(ls for such fan-
ciful labels as Lean and Lite or recommenc!
their elimination.
6. Define the roles of beef and lamb
grades. Are they a marketing too} or a label
for consumer information?
7. Should consideration be given to con-
trol of pathogenic microorganisms such as
Staphylococcus and SalmoneZZa species as
part of dietary considerations?
Areas for Research
1. Salt/nitrite/phosphate interactions and
their elect on pathogens;
2. Nutritional contributions of meat by-
products and processing adjuncts after in-
clusion in a processes! meat product; and
3. Mollification of current beef ant] lamb
gracles to a system similar to that used for
pork (quantitative and age).
OCR for page 283
Integrated Nutrition, Genetics,
and Growth Management Programs
for Lean Beef Production
F. M. BYERS, H. R. CROSS, and G. T. SCHELLING
We have evolved into a"lean-conscious
society," where fats has become a four-
letter word and a high priority is placed on
getting and staying trim. In no area is this
more evident than in our selection of and
desire for leaner beef products.
Efficient production of palatable lean beef
must be a primary objective of the beef
cattle industry if it is to compete in the long
term. Current yearly production of the 5
billion pouncis of waste ant] trim fat must
be reducer! as rapidly as possible. Although
beef fat is trimmed extensively at slaughter
and by the consumer, which results in a
reasonably lean beef product, only the pre-
vention of this excessive fat deposition where
it occurs will correct the image of beef as a
fat, high-calorie product.
A diversity of beef products are needed,
all of which must be separated from the
current image of fat cattle and fat beef.
Industry must focus on producing and ef-
fectively marketing lean beef and work to
associate beef with active life-styles and
healthful living. Products must be engi-
neered to coincide with consumer needs
and to acIdress consumer fears, both per-
ceived and real. Since it is easier to create
283
new attitudes than to change olc] ones, the
industry must use innovative marketing
strategies to reposition beef products with
a new identity.
Unique challenges face the beef industry
to clesign and clevelop new technologies that
will allow production of lean beef rather
than beef that must be extensively trimmed
to make it lean. This will require greater
lean tissue deposition throughout the life
cycle ant] extensive redirection of feed en-
ergy from fat to protein deposition through
all phases of growth. This can only be
accomplished if all segments of the industry
target on the same goal and integrate avail-
able technology to effectively manage growth.
INDUSTRY PERSPECTIVE
The beef cattle industry has evolved from
production of extremely lean beef, based
largely on Longhorn-type cattle in extensive
grazing systems in the nineteenth century,
to production of very fat beef from small-
size English breeds in the mid-twentieth
century. During the second half of the
twentieth century, the trend has shifted
back toward leaner beef, with selection of
OCR for page 284
284
large-framecI, later-maturing, large mature
size exotic types of cattle. Recent consumer
pressure for leaner beef has accelerated this
change and encouraged consideration of
many new cattle breeds not formerly part
of the U.S. beef cattle industry.
The current beef cattle population in-
cludes cattle of all types and sizes. They are
fed a wide variety of feedstuffs, both grazed
and harvested, ranging from poor-quality
mature range grasses to high-energy feedIot
rations, with most combinations in between.
They are managed in systems including
wintering, backgrounding, summer grazing,
growing, forage finishing, and high-grain
feediot programs. The traditional end prod-
uct of these diverse cattle-resource combi-
nations is Choice grade beef with 30 to 35
percent carcass fat. Consumer preference
for a leaner beef product indicates the need
to devise systems to economically produce
this kind of beef.
MECHANISMS TO PRODUCE
LEAN BEEF
The traditional method user! to increase
the production of lean beef is to feed larger
mature size cattle. However, an increase in
mature size means a larger cow that has
greater requirements per unit of weight and
greatly increaser! levels of maintenance en-
ergy committed to beef production. For
example, Chianina cattle produce large,
lean carcasses, but because of their size they
require more maintenance feed energy.
Therefore, a more effective approach for
producing lean beef is to modify the patterns
of growth in cattle to produce more lean
beef from all cattle. While this is the even-
tual target of genetic engineering initiatives,
systems using these concepts are not likely
to surface any time soon. An understanding
of growth and its regulation is required to
effectively use growth management strate-
gies to produce leaner beef products. An
outline of options ant! factors involved in
APPENDIX
regulation through genetics, nutrition, and
growth follows:
Genetics
Establishes upper limit of growth
Determines base patterns of growth
Sets priorities for growth of tissues
At any rate of growth
During intervals of growth
Targets composition at any weight
Sets physiological maturity at points of
growth
Nutrition: Energy
Schedule versus phase of growth
Growing versus later stages
Current versus earlier nutritional his-
tory
Deferred versus advanced systems
Level and source
Forage versus grain
Quantity/day versus limits for lean tis-
sue growth
Rate and composition of growth
Substrates for tissue growth
Nutrition and function
Optimize lean tissue growth
Feedback on lean tissue priorities
Storage an :1 retrieval of tissues
Nutrition en cl physiological limits
Growth management: Synchronizing nu
trients and needs
Endogenous regulation
Bulls, steers, heifers
Patterns during growth
Exogenous regulation
Repartitioning agents
Estrogens
Zerano}
Growth hormone
Beta-aclrenergic agonists
Mechanisms of regulation
Priorities for protein versus fat
Redirection of nutrients
Tissue mobilization
Limits for daily deposition
Other effects
OCR for page 285
GROWTH MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS
Role of Genetics in the Production of
Leaner Beef
Mature size ant] genetics establish the
limits (both dally and cumulative), base
patterns, priorities, and type of growth
predominating through phases of growth.
In addition, the genetic directives provide
general targets for body ant] carcass com-
position and degree of physiological matu-
rity over time and weight intervals through
growth. However, other factors really de-
termine the extent to which these theoret-
ical limits will actually be reached, or how
patterns and priorities for growth will be
followed or translated into and realized as
growth.
Some general principles that are usually
associated with genetic regulation may be
useful as a reference point. In general, cattle
of larger mature size have greater limits for
daily protein growth and have accumulated
more protein than smaller cattle at any point
during growth and when mature size is
reached (Byers and Rompala, 1980; Byers
et al., 1986~. Large mature size cattle are
typically physiologically younger at any point
during growth than smaller mature size
cattle. They also place a higher priority on
protein growth and deposit a greater fraction
of protein at any rate of growth, but espe-
cially at lower rates. However, many cattle
types violate these notions. For instance,
all smalI-size cattle are not early maturing;
Longhorn or Scottish HighIanclers, for ex-
ample, are small and late maturing. Also,
limits for daily protein growth do not au-
tomatically follow potential cumulative stor-
age. While both Simmental and Limousin
accumulate large quantities of protein, rates
of protein growth in Limousin may be no
greater than in Red or Black Angus, while
Simmental have the potential to deposit
protein more rapidly. However, both Sim-
mental and Limousin are leaner at most
weights through growth than Angus. In
Simmental this occurs because of rapid
285
protein growth, while in Limousin it is
primarily a reflection of Tower energy intake
and lower rates of fat deposition. It becomes
immediately evident that rate and compo-
sition of growth are directly related and not
independent of each other. Available energy
translates genetic directives through tissue
regulation into patterns of growth.
Role of Nutrition in Growth
Nutrition is directly linked to rate and
composition of growth in several ways (Byers,
1982~. Available energy is used to meet the
needs for maintenance, protein growth, and
fat deposition, primarily in that order. Thus,
composition of growth reflects levels of
available substrates prowled relative to
maintenance and limits for protein growth,
with additional energy usually deposited as
fat. In general, rates of protein deposition
increase at decreasing rates and rates of fat
deposition increase at increasing rates with
rate of growth. Consequently, percentage
protein in growth decreases while percent-
age fat in growth increases with rate of
growth. Empty body and carcass composi-
tion reflects these patterns of tissue growth,
and cattle growing rapidly through higher
levels of nutrition are fatter at subsequent
points in growth and at slaughter. The
magnitude of nutritionally regulated changes
in body composition at a given weight reflect
animal priorities, rates of growth, and length
of time that animals are growing at respec-
tive rates. Slower (deferred) growth for
extended periods of time invariably results
in leaner carcasses at any selected weight.
However, most cattle deposit some fat, even
at slow rates of growth, and the priorities
for protein versus fat deposition at any rate
of growth are established through genetic
directives that are implemented through
physiological mechanisms. Physiological
mechanisms exist to allow retrieval of fat to
provide energy for protein growth if suffi-
cient stored fat is available from a previous
OCR for page 286
286
phase of growth. Important components of
nutrition include the stage of growth versus
nutritional schedule, level and source that
is, forage versus grain and level relative
to growth process priorities.
Nutrition is normally considered relative
to phase of growth such as preweaning,
stocker, or finishing, ant] ranges of nutri-
tional levels are implied in each phase.
However, the general relationship of rate
to composition of Growth applies to all
~O
phases of growth; only the relative priorities
for protein versus fat deposition change with
stage of growth. Commonly used beef cattle
feeding and management systems include a
range of nutritional programs where periods
of rapid and deferred growth are included.
All periods of deferrer! growth where pro-
tein growth is allowed result in restriction
of fat deposition such that the animal is
older and has hack more time to deposit
protein and thus has accumulated more lean
tissue. Animals that have been managed in
(referred feeding programs wait be leaner at
any slaughter weight and will be heavier
when typical slaughter end points are
reached.
Common systems of deferred feeding in-
clucle growing feeder calves after weaning
in winter grazing or backgrounding pro-
grams to yearling weight before placement
on high-energy feecIlot finishing rations that
maximize rate of growth. Cattle managed
in this system will be more than 150 pounds
heavier at slaughter when similar in com-
position to cattle placed on feedlot rations
at weaning (Byers, 1980~. It follows that
they will be leaner at any slaughter weight
than cattle fed to grow rapidly immediately
after weaning. While this deferrer] system
allows smaller mature size cattle to produce
larger and more acceptable carcasses when
slaughter end points are reached, large
mature size cattle will yield unacceptably
large carcasses weighing in excess of 1,000
pouncis. This provides the basis for genotype
by nutrition interactions, indicating the util-
ity of deferred feeding programs for smaller
APPENDIX
mature size cattle and high-energy feecilot
programs for large mature size cattle as soon
as feasible after weaning. Some of the great-
est real opportunities for growth manage-
ment exist within cattle types ant! involve
mollifying an animal's inherent priorities for
growth.
Integrated Growth Management
The objective of growth management is
to regulate growth and synchronize nutrient
sunDlies with nutrient needs to support the
desired type of growth. This can be accom-
plishe(1 through both endogenous mecha-
nisms inherent to an animal (that is, castra-
tion) or through exogenous mechanisms such
as estrogenic repartitioning agents (Byers,
1982; Lemieux et al., 1983b). The mecha-
nisms involvecl in redirection of growth
include modification of (1) priorities for
nutrient use for protein versus fat cleposi-
tion, (2) tissue turnover (Roeder et al.,
1984), (3) daily tissue (1eposition limits, ant!
(4) nutrient supply. Eventually, growth hor-
mone, releasing factors for growth hormone,
beta-adrenergic agonists, or immunization
strategies to remove negative feedback on
growth (that is, somatostatin) may provide
additional ways to regulate growth. They
may work with or in place of current growth
regulation technology. These alternatives
are in the early stages of development and
probably will not be available any time soon.
In the interim, elective systems of growth
regulation must be implemented to allow
more lean tissue ant] less fat deposition in
production of carcass beef. Anabolic estro-
genic implants are elective repartitioning
agents that modify growth by shifting nu-
trients from fat to protein accretion, result-
ing in priorities for growth more analogous
to those for bulls (Byers et al., 1985a, 1985c;
Lemieux et al., 1985a). In a(lclition, they
usually enhance rate of growth, serving to
further increase lean tissue production (Byers
et al., 1985b). Rate and efficiency of lean
tissue growth are critical to enhancing lean
OCR for page 287
GROWTH MANAGEMENT PROGRAMS
beef production through conventional cattle
feeding and management systems. In ad-
dition to more efficient production, anabolic
implants provide the opportunity to regulate
growth so as to tailor beef production to
meet consumer demand for leaner beef
products. While implants have been used
for several decacles, the basis for their growth
regulator functions have only recently be-
gun to be understood (Lawrence et al.,
1985~. This is important for the development
of growth regulation systems that allow
programmer! growth of cattle.
Rationale for Anabolic Implant
Response
Recent research has provided new in-
sights into mechanisms by which growth-
promoting implants modify growth in beef
cattle. Protein growth is a daily function,
and cellular mechanisms establish the max-
imum rates for daily protein synthesis. Cel-
lular limits for protein growth are not often
reached because of physiological factors,
such as hormonal en c] nutritional mecha-
nisms, that set priorities for and limits to
protein deposition. Cattle of cli~erent types
have different priorities for protein depo-
sition at different rates of growth, ant] larger
mature size cattle direct more energy to-
ward protein growth at any rate of growth.
Priorities for protein growth are enhancer!
by anabolic implants, which redirect nu-
trients from fat to protein in a"daily double
play"-increasing lean growth at the ex-
pense of fat, especially at rapid rates of gain.
The effectiveness of repartitioning im-
plants increases with rate of growth (Byers,
1982), with maximal redirection of nutrients
from fat to protein at the most rapid! rates
of gain (Lemieux et al., 1983b). The effec-
tiveness of anabolic regulators is predicated
on inherent rates of fat deposition providing
the opportunity for repartitioning of nu-
trients from fat to protein accretion. Estra-
diol-17-beta and zeranol are currently avail-
able compounds that occur naturally and
287
are very effective repartitioning agents, en-
hancing rates of protein ant! lean tissue
production whenever present at effective
levels in cattle depositing fat. In recent
studies, implants consistently increaser]
overall rates of carcass and total protein
accretion and yield! of lean retail product.
Just as we are what we eat, cattle are
what they accrete, with carcass beef reflect-
ing cumulative growth from birth to slaugh-
ter. Consequently, use of anabolic implants
from birth to slaughter provides lifetime
growth regulation and provides the maximal
redirection of nutrients from fat to protein
and lean tissue production. The longer an-
abolic agents are proviclec! in efficacious
closes, the greater is the increase in total
beef lean with a simultaneous reduction in
fat.
PRODUCING MARKETABLE
LEANER BEEF
The leaner beef product must be accept-
able and, hopefully, even desirable in the
marketplace. Thus, the impact of strategies
to produce leaner beef on product accept-
ability must be included in an assessment
of production options.
Effects of Breed Type on Acceptability
The following general observations can
be made after evaluating 29 separate re-
search studies:
1. Carcasses from English-type cattle
ranked first in the U. S. Department of
Agriculture (USDA) quality grade and mar-
bling ratings. Continental breeds were in-
termediate, while Zebu and dairy purebreds
ranked last.
2. Flavor and juiciness appeared not to
be affected by breed or breed type.
3. Meat from Zebu and their crosses were
rated less tender than the English, dairy,
or continental breeds or crosses. These low
ratings were supported by significantly higher
Warner-Bratzler shear force values.
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288
APPENDIX
In conclusion, with the exception of the In summary, forage-fed animals produce
Zebu influence, breed appears to have little carcasses that are borderline in acceptability
practical influence on muscle quality (Cross
et al., 1984; McKeith et al., 1985~.
Forage- Versus Grain-Fed Beef
A consiclerable amount of data has been
published on the effect of forage versus
grain feeding on carcass traits (Byers, 1980;
Lemieux et al., 1983a, 1985b) and muscle
quality (Bidner et al., 1986; Crouse et al.,
19841. Animals from forage-fed systems pro
duce carcasses that have less marbling,
darker lean color, softer lean, coarser-tex
tured lean, and lower USDA quality grades
than grain-fed animals. Grain-fed animals
averaged two-thirds of a quality grade ad
vantage over forage-fed animals. The quality
grade difference was significant in 12 of 29
comparisons. When the difference was not
significant, the trend was almost always in
favor of the grain-fed animals. Forage-fed
beef, because of its darker and softer lean,
will not have the retail shelf-life of grain
fed beef. This presents a serious problem
from the consumer acceptance standpoint.
Grain-fed animals produced carcasses that
were significantly more tender than forage
fed animals in more than 41 percent of the
comparisons. Perhaps even more important,
62 percent of the flavor desirability ratings
favored grain-fed beef. The flavor-intensity
ratings were almost always higher in meat
from forage-fed animals. These intensity
ratings were likely related to "oh' flavors
rather than to desirable flavors.
Limited data are available on taste ac
ceptance of forage-fed versus grain-fed beef
as evaluated by consumer panels. Gener
ally, the differences were either very small
or in favor of the grain-fee] beef. Obviously,
differences in the literature with regard to
quality traits of forage- versus grain-fed beef
vary considerably, partly because of the
variability in quality of forage, age of the
animal, and amount of grain supplemented
to the diet.
in terms of color, firmness, and retail shelf-
life. Meat from these carcasses is borderline
in taste acceptability. To date, the U. S. beef
industry has not been willing to risk losing
its "taste" image by moving to a total forage
production system. Such a system would be
impractical for other reasons, too, such as
retained ownership because of the time
required to reach acceptable market weights
and the inability to supply the marketplace
on a consistent basis.
Bulls Versus Steers
Castration of meat-producing animals has
long been practicer] in the United States.
It is intended to produce an animal more
acceptable to current management systems
and to provide a more desirable carcass for
marketing. During the past four decades, a
number of research studies have been con-
ductec! to assess the performance and meat
characteristics of castrates versus noncas-
trates (Griffin et al., 1985; Sei(leman et al.,
1982~. In general, the results have indicated
that bulls grow more rapidly, utilize feed
more efficiently, and produce leaner car-
casses. Increased production efficiency ob-
taine(1 through the use of intact males has
often been offset by management problems,
particularly with animal behavior. Meat pro-
duction from young bulls has met with
strong resistance from meat packers, in part
because of carcass size variability, difficulty
of hide removal, and inability to obtain an
acceptable USDA quality grade. Retailers
have resisted using meat from young bulls
because their meat has been labeled as less
tender and less clesirable in color and tex-
ture.
The obvious advantages of using the young
bull for meat production are efficiency of
growth, leanness, and muscling. The dis-
advantages are in the area of carcass traits
and tenderness. Some of the problems as-
sociated with tenderness can be corrected
OCR for page 321
IMPROVING NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF POULTRY MEAT AND EGG PRODUCTS 321
quality protein. Beef blood, for example,
contains 18 percent protein and is rich in
lysine, valine, tryptophan, phenylalanine,
ant] leucine. However, blood proteins are
very low in isoleucine, which can result in
an amino acid imbalance (Olson, 19704. The
plasma component of blood contains about
70 percent protein and the cellular fraction
(rec! ant! white celIs) about 94 percent pro-
tein (Stevenson and Lloyd, 1979~. Young et
al. (1973) demonstrates! that the protein
efficiency ratio of a diet containing dried
bovine plasma could be increaser] from
-1.05 to 2.88 by adding 1.2 percent Dk-
isoleucine to the diet. The composition of
dried poultry blood is 80 percent protein,
8 percent moisture, 1 percent fat, and 11
percent fiber or ash (Mountney, 1976~.
Broiler chickens contain about 7.5 per-
cent of their body weight in blood, 45
percent of which is collectible during slaugh-
ter operations (Kotula and Helbacka, 1966~.
In 1985, more than 23 billion pounds of
poultry were inspected! in the United States
(U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1986~.
Therefore, some 800 million pouncis of blood
could have been collected.
Efficient processes for hygienic blood col-
lection from large animals using hollow
knives and sodium citrate (to prevent co-
agulation) have been reporter] by Stevenson
and Lloyd (1979) and Wismer-Peclersen
(1979~. Systems for collecting blood] have
also been constructed and commercially
tested in poultry-processing plants (Childs
et al., 1976~. These systems were effective
ant] reliable in handling the blood and also
reduced the pollution entering the plant
effluent. However, they were not designed
for collecting blood for use in human food.
Although a sanitary system for blood col-
lection may be technologically possible, the
economic aspects of protein recovery from
blood remain a problem. Satterlee (1981)
stated that the "problem is the cost of
recovering protein from dilute solutions and
resulting energy needler! to dry the whole
solution, to concentrate and preserve the
protein." New energy-efficient recovery
processes are required to make such recov-
ery feasible.
Increased Use of Giblets
Poultry giblets heart, gizzard, and liver
are not fully used in the Uniter! States. In
some processing plants, especially those
slaughtering bircis for use in further proc-
essing, it has become economically infeasi-
ble to harvest, clean, and package giblets.
These three foods are high in protein,
iron, and niacin. In addition, liver is high
in vitamins A and C.
The undesirable texture of gizzard and
heart tissue has been a factor in the underuse
of these foods. In acldition, the functional
properties of the proteins in these tissues
are not as acceptable as those in the skeletal
muscle of poultry. A number of studies have
demonstrated that protein modification can
improve the functional properties of various
tissues: beef (DuBois et al., 1972~; fish
(Spinelli et al., 1972~; beef heart (Smith and
Brekke, 1984~; and mechanically deponed
fowl (Smith and Brekke, 1985a,b). Accord-
ing to Franzen (1977), mollification refers
to the intentional alteration of the physio-
chemical properties of proteins by chemical,
enzymatic, or physical agents to improve
functional properties.
According to Brekke and Eisele (1981),
acylation reactions, involving the direct ad-
dition of chemical groups to functional groups
of amino acid side chains via substitution,
have the most potential for chemically mod-
ifying food proteins. The anhydrides of acetic
and succinic acids are usually the acylating
agents, since they are easy to use, safe, ant]
inexpensive and produce acylated deriva-
tives that are functionally important. When
a protein is reacted with acetic anhy(lride,
the acylation reaction is termed acetylation;
when succinic anhydride is used, the reac-
tion is referred to as succinylation.
Succinylation affects the physical char-
acter of proteins by increasing the net neg
OCR for page 322
322
ative charge, changing conformation, and
increasing the propensity of proteins to
dissociate into subunits, breaking up protein
aggregates, and increasing protein solubility
(Franzen, 19771.
For acylated proteins to be incorporated
into foods, they will need to be safe, diges-
tible, and probably approved by the Food
and Drug Administration en c] USDA as food
ingredients since the protein has been mod-
ified. Groninger and Miller (1979) indicated
that the influence of acylation on protein
utilization and nutritional quality clepends
on the type of protein, the amount of protein
mollification, and the acylating agent used.
Similar techniques may also be useful in
improving the functional properties of poul-
try giblets, thereby making these products,
with good nutritional properties, more us-
able by the poultry further-processing in-
dustry.
Hot-Deboning and Hot-Stripping
Hot-cleboning is the removal of meat from
the eviscerated carcass before the onset of
rigor mortis. Hot-stripping is a modification
of hot-cleboning in that the muscle is re-
moved from a nonevisceratec3 bird.
As much as 1 percent of the total solids
in poultry meat may be lost cluring water
chilling of the carcass. These losses, al-
though minor, do occur with water-soluble
components such as vitamins ant] minerals.
Air chilling or hot cleboning alleviates this
loss, since the carcass is not in contact with
water for a prolonged period.
Of probably greater importance than this
1 percent loss in solids content, however,
is the potential economic advantage of hot
eboning or hot-stripping. The economic
savings that could be expected with these
techniques include energy savings through
a decrease in cooling costs, decreases! water
consumption, lowered equipment expend-
itures, recluced labor and time, and im-
proved yields.
APPENDIX
For hot-stripping to be used, changes in
USDA inspection regulations are necessary,
since muscle tissue is remover! from car-
casses prior to the inspection of the viscera.
Removal of the Abdominal Fat Pad
Consumers do not like to buy chicken
containing the abdominal fat pad. Most
remove it themselves before preparing the
chicken. Several large poultry companies
are currently removing this fat at the proc-
essing plant in an effort to sell a product
that is lower in total fat than their compet-
itor's chicken. The average abclominal fat
pad weighs about 40 grams, which consti-
tutes 2.5 percent of the total weight of the
carcass ant! 10 percent of the total body fat
(F. E. Pfaff, personal communication, 19861.
These values are basec] on whole carcass
composition determinations and not on spe-
cific cuts of boneless meat.
Reduction in Sodium Content of
Further-Processed Products
In recent years, considerable attention
has been focused on sodium and its potential
impact on public health. Although the value
of Tow-sodium diets is questioned by some
scientists (Kolata, 1982), there is sufficient
concern within the scientific community
(Putnam and Reilly, 1981) ant! by many
consumers to warrant production of food
products containing less sodium.
Poultry meat itself is not high in sodium
content; cooke(l breast meat contains 63 mg
of sodium/100 grams of meat, and cooker]
thigh meat contains 75 mg/100 grams. How-
ever, during the further processing of poul-
try meat into products, the sodium content
may increase dramatically as sodium chlo-
ride and various sodium phosphates are
added to the product.
Sodium chloride is generally used in fur-
ther-processed products such as frankfurters
at levels of 1.5 to 2.5 percent. Salt influences
the flavor, may affect the shelf-life, and
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IMPROVING NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF POULTRY MEAT AND EGG PRODUCTS
affects the functional properties of the my-
ofibrilIar proteins.
One option for lowering sodium content
is to use substitutes for all or part of the
sodium chloride, such as calcium chloride,
magnesium chloride, and potassium chlo-
ride (Hand et al., 1982; Maurer, 1983~.
Hand et al. (1982) reported that replacing
100 percent of the sodium chloride with
magnesium chloride or potassium chloride
was detrimental to the flavor of the frank-
furters prepared from mechanically de-
boned turkey. The authors suggested that
35 percent of the sodium chloride could be
successfully replaced with potassium chlo-
ride; magnesium chloride caused offflavors,
even at the 35 percent level.
Smith and Brekke (1985b) varied the
sodium chloride content of frankfurters pre-
parec] from enzyme-moclified, mechanically
clebonec! fowl. They found that 0.5 percent
salt was the least amount that could be
added and still produce a satisfactory frank-
furter from which the casing could be easily
removed. Brekke ant! Eisele (1981) had
earlier reported that enzymatic modification
also has potential as a partial substitute for
salt in processed meat products. The low-
salt (0.5 percent) frankfurters were rated as
having less chicken frankfurter flavor than
products prepared with 2 percent salt. The
authors states] that if low-salt franldurters
are to gain consumer acceptance, appropri-
ate spice formulations will need to be de-
veloped to compensate for the salty flavor.
Barbut et al. (1986) reported that turkey
frankfurters with 1.5 percent salt combined
with phosphate were as acceptable as "ref-
erence" frankfurters, which contained 2.5
percent salt.
The sodium chloride in poultry frank-
furters could be reduced to at least 1.5
percent (590 mg of sodium/100 grams of
meat) without detracting from the flavor and
to as low as 0.5 percent (197 mg of sodium/
100 grams of meat) if additional spices can
be found to improve the flavor.
323
Reduction of Fat Content in
Poultry Frankfurters
Chicken and/or turkey frankfurters tra-
clitionally contain 18 to 22 percent fat,
compared to pork and/or beef franks, which
usually contain 25 to 30 percent fat. Some
producers of poultry franks have lowered
the fat content of their product to 13 to 16
percent by using mechanically debonec! meat
from portions of the poultry such as the
front quarter, breast cage, or skinless necks,
which contain less fat than backs or legs.
According to a study in Consumer Reports
(Anonymous, 1986b), poultry frankfurters
ranged in caloric content from 180 to 300
keal/100 grams of meat; the mean was 243
kcal/100 grams.
From a sensory standpoint, fat is an
important component in increasing the pal-
atability in a food such as frankfurters. If
the fat content is too low, the resulting
product tends to be rubbery and tough.
Therefore, although consumers may think
they want a much leaner frankfurter, such
a product may not be acceptable to them.
Reduction in Fat Content of Fried
Poultry Products
Batter/brea(led, deep-frie(1 poultry pro(l-
ucts have been a mainstay of the further-
processed and fast-food industry for many
years. The current emphasis is toward bone-
less products, such as nuggets and patties.
According to Przybyla (1985), the single
fastest growing area within the processed
chicken category is frozen, boneless, breaded
chicken, partly because of increased sales
of chicken-based finger foods in fast-food
outlets. Retail sales of such items increased
71 percent from 1982 to 1984. There is also
more interest in producing a product that
is lower in fat and therefore lower in calories.
Baker et al. (1986) recently evaluated four
cooking methods for battered and breadecl
broiler parts: FF (full frying in 177°C oil),
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324
FSF (fry, steam, fry: brief fry, followed by
longer steam cook plus additional short fry),
WC (water cook: thoroughly cooked in hot
water followed by 45 seconds of frying), and
FOC (fry, oven cook: fries! for 2.5 minutes
followed by thorough heating in a 218°C
oven). The three most commonly used
methods for commercial preparation of retail
frozen, fully cooker! and browned, battered
and breacled chicken are WC, FF, and
FOC, respectively. Baker et al. (1986) found
that the fat content was slightly higher in
breasts cooked by FF and FSF compared
with breasts cooker! by WC ant] FOC, but
the differences were not significant; for
thighs, there was very little difference in
fat content due to cooking treatments. Gen-
erally, there were no differences in the
flavor or acceptability of parts heated by
any ofthe four methods; yields were highest
for pieces cooker] by FSF, followed by FOC.
Staclelman (1985) illustrated that breaded
chicken products can be producer] with
reduced caloric content by using hot air
cooking instead of deep-fat frying, which
resulted in a 23 to 31 percent decrease in
fat content of parts and a 13 to 15 percent
decrease in calories, ant] by removing the
skin before breading an(l hot air cooking,
which resulted in a 42 to 65 percent decrease
in calories (see Table 1~.
According to Stadelman (1985), when
TABLE 1 Analyses of Chicken Parts
APPENDIX
breaded, fried chicken contains 20 percent
fat, as it frequently does with open kettle
frying, 60 percent of the calories come from
the fat. By removing the skin and cooking
in hot air, a chicken breast or drumstick
can be prepared with only 27 percent of the
calories coming from the fat.
Cooking systems such as the one men-
tioned above and/or broiling will become
more commonplace in the future as the
demand for poultry products with less fat
and fewer calories increases.
Increased Utilization of Proteins
Recovered from Bone Residue of
Mechanically Deboned Poultry
Bones from slaughtered animals, espe-
cially larger animals such as beef and swine,
are usually used for animal feed, gelatin,
and glue. However, they could be used as
ingredients in certain processed products;
they are high in protein and provide a
dietary source of minerals such as calcium.
Bone products are used as food ingredients
in some European countries. Some coun-
tries consider bone-derived protein added
to a meat product to be meat; others con-
sicler it to be a nonmeat ingredient. In the
Unitecl States, bone-(lerived protein is not
currently permitted in food products (Calvi
et al., 1984b).
Breast Thigh Drumstick
Percent Kcal/ Percent Kcal/ Percent Kcal/
Source Fat 100 g Fat 100 g Fat 100 g
USDAa 13.2 260 16.2 275 15.8 268
Lab friedb 15.7 275 16.9 279 14.0 244
Lab modified 10.8 233 13.0 243 9.9 209
Lab ultimates 5.7 186 9.8 218 4.9 166
aData from U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1979. Composition of Foods Poultry Products. Agricultural
Handbook No. 8-5. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Department of Agriculture.
bPressure deep fat fried, commercial equipment.
CPieces with skin; hot air, no frying.
Pieces without skin; hot air, no frying.
SOURCE: W. J. Stadelman. 1985. This chicken product breaks "grease barrier." Broiler Ind. 48:46.
OCR for page 325
IMPROVING NUTRZTIONAL VALUE OF POULTRY MEAT AND EGG PRODUCTS 325
Recent estimates indicate that 300 million
pounds of mechanically deponed poultry
are produced annually in the United States.
This represents yields of about 60 to 70
percent mechanically cleboned poultry de-
pencling on the type of machine used. On
the basis of these estimates, 150 million
pounces of bone residue (BR) are produced
annually, most of which is used in fertilizer,
pet food, or animal feeds. Bone residue is
the material remaining when mechanically
cleboned poultry is prepared. Bone residue
has characteristics that make it a valuable
potential source of human food. It contains
20 percent protein, which represents an
additional 30 million pouncis of protein avail-
able annually for human use, assuming all
protein could be extracted.
Bone residue contains approximately 18.9
percent protein, 7.7 percent fat, 11.7 per-
cent ash, and 60.0 percent moisture (Mast
and Opiacha, 1987; Opiacha et al., 1986~.
The two methods that have been developed
to extract protein from BR are use of sodium
chloride solutions (Kijowski ant] Niewiarow-
icz, 1985; Young, 1976) and use of mild
alkali solutions Jelen et al., 1982; Opiacha
et al., 1986~.
Freeze-clriecl protein isolates from BR
using sodium chloride, prepared by Young
(1976), contained 60 to 65 percent lipid, 5
to 10 percent ash, and 4 to 6 percent
moisture. The freeze-cTried protein extract
obtained by Opiacha et al. (1986), using
alkali, container] 45 percent protein, 47
percent fat, ant] 14 percent ash. Yields of
dried extract represented! 7 percent of the
original BR.
Limiter] information is available on the
nutritional quality of protein from BR. Law-
rence and lelen (1982) state that severe
alkali treatments of protein may cause ra-
cemization or destruction of certain amino
acids; in abolition, unusual new amino acids
may be produced, such as lysinoalanine,
lanthionine, and ornithinoalanine. These
authors concluded that the alkali extraction
methods, as usually conducted with BR,
should not produce material such as lysi-
noalanine that could pose health hazards for
consumers.
Protein extracts from BR have relatively
good functional properties (water-holding
capacity, emulsifying capacity, solubility)
and could serve as ingredients in other
poultry proteins. The poultry industry should
be encouraged to explore the economic
feasibility of using this protein source, which
is currently underutilized or cliscarded.
Reduction of Cholesterol Content of
Much research has focused on reducing
the cholesterol content of chicken eggs by
altering the diet or through genetic selec-
tion. These approaches have met with vary-
ing degrees of success. Another alternative
is to modify the egg yolk after the egg is
laid. Since this disrupts the shell, albumin,
and yolk, only processed eggs (currently
about 15 percent of all eggs consumed) are
available for this procedure.
Approaches used to date include dilution
of whole liquid egg with egg white, thereby
reducing the cholesterol content of the final
product; removal of portions of the yolk
lipids and cholesterol with various "sol-
vents," thereby producing a product lower
in cholesterol; and complete removal of the
yolk and formulation of a substitute "yolk"
from vegetable oils and other ingredients,
thereby producing a product that is choles-
terol-free.
Numerous U.S. patents have been ob-
tained to accomplish the above goals. A few
are discussed below.
Metnick (1971g, U.S. Patent 3,563,765:
Egg yolk solids were treated with nonpolar
solvents (for example, hexane) at '160°F
(71°C) to extract 50 to 90 percent of the fat
and 70 to 98 percent of the cholesterol. The
author indicated that n-hexane caused "lit-
tle, if any, damage to the functional prop-
erties of the remaining protein."
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326
Melaick et al. (1971g, U. S. Patent
3,594,183: A specific objective of this patent
was to provide an egg yolk product high in
polyunsaturates, low in saturates, and low
in cholesterol. Egg yolk solicis, from which
most of the fat and cholesterol have been
extracted with n-hexane, were mixed with
vegetable oil, salt, emulsifiers, and coloring
compounds. After emulsifying, pasteuriz-
ing, and drying, "refatted egg yolk solids"
were obtained. These can be used as a
replacement for conventional egg yolk sol-
ids.
Seeley (1974), U.S. Patent3,843,811: A
frozen egg product was prepared that con-
tained 0 to 1.1 percent fat, 8 to 18 percent
protein, and <0.05 percent cholesterol. The
product contained-92 percent egg white
and '8 percent egg yolk. Other ingredients
added were 2 to 2.6 percent potato flour,
0.1 to 0.2 percent carboxymethy! cellulose,
1.4 to 1.8 percent nonfat milk solids, and
citric acid.
Glasser and Matos (1976), U.S. Patent
3,941,892: This patent differed from others
in that a frozen "sunny-sicle up" egg product
was cleveloped; the mold used to form the
shape was also used as the package. The
"yolk" portion was synthesized with 20 to
45 percent dried egg white, 5 to 35 percent
oil (with a polyunsaturated/saturated tP/S]
fatty acid ratio > 0.6), ciry milk protein,
vegetable gum, colors, flavorings, and emul-
sifiers.
Seeley et al. (1976J and Seeley and Seeley
(1980), U. S. Patents 3,987,212 and 4,200,663,
respectively: A frozen egg product that con-
tains no cholesterol or egg fats was producecl
that was suitable for making scrambled eggs,
omelets, and so on. The product was pre-
pared by blending egg whites and small
amounts of nonfat milk solids, vegetable
gums, and flavor enhancers.
Fioriti et al. (1978), U. S. Patent 4,103,040:
The goal of these authors was to produce
wet egg yolks and egg products that were
low in cholesterol ant! had a P/S ratio > 1,
while maintaining the functional properties
APPENDIX
of natural eggs. Wet egg yolks were pre-
pared using a high-energy, higher shear
mixer for a short time. During mixing,
cholesterol was extracted from the yolk by
the oil. At the same time, the P/S ratio
increased. The wet yolk was then separated
(centrifuged) from the oil. Egg yolk products
were produced in which > 70 percent of
the cholesterol was removed and the P/S
ratio was > 1.3.
BoZ(lt (1981), U. S. Patent 4,296,134: A
99 percent cholesterol-free egg blend was
prepared that was low in fat (1. 25 percent)
and calories (80 kcal/100 grams). The blend
contained 60 to 96 percent liquid egg
white, 0 to 18 percent water, 2 to 10.5
percent protein replacement (nonfat dried
milk solids, powdered egg albumin, and
soy protein), stabilizers, flavoring, and
coloring.
Tan et al. (1982), U. S. Patent 4,360,537:
These authors developed a "lipoprotein
emulsion system composed of protein, edi-
ble oil, and other selected food ingredients"
that could be used to replace egg yolk. Their
primary objective was to improve the com-
position ant! processes for preparing a pro(l-
uct with good functional properties.
The nutritional quality of one egg substi-
tute has been compared to whole eggs by
several investigators. Navidi and Kumme-
row (1974) reporter! that raw egg substitute
caused severe nutritional deficiencies in
weanling rats ant! that all animals died
within 4 weeks of weaning. Francis (1975)
reported 100 percent mortality of chicks
within 12 days when fed egg substitute as
their only foocl. Since eggs are not usually
the only food in a diet, Ryan and Kienholz
(1979) prepared diets for chicks in which
egg substitute or whole eggs constituted
only 40 percent of the diet. These authors
concluded that when cooked and fell in a
palatable form, egg substitute is a satisfac-
tory source of protein to support chick
growth. Chicks fed whole-egg diets weighed
787 grams after 28 days, whereas chicks fed
OCR for page 327
IMPROVING NUTRITIONAL VALUE OF POULTRY MEAT AND EGG PRODUCTS 327
egg substitute averaged 687 grams (about
13 percent less).
Baker and Darner (1977) ant] Baker ancI
Bruce (1986) prepared egg blends by varying
the yolk to white ratio from 1:1 to 1:10.
Liquid egg with a 1:3 ratio of yolk to white
pro~lucecl scrambler! eggs and omelets com-
parable to those made with whole eggs but
contained only 50 percent as much choles-
tero! and 30 percent fewer calories. In the
1977 study, the authors found that egg
blencis containing as little as one-fourth the
normal amount of egg yolk, with protein
and lipid raised to the content of normal
egg by the addition of ciried albumin and
corn oil, made egg products that were as
acceptable as those made with whole eggs.
The patents and research studies re-
viewed have focused on cholesterol elimi-
nation or reduction in egg yolk products.
Larsen and Froning (1981) suggested that
fractionating egg yolk into its lipid, protein,
and aqueous components may also lead to
entities with new properties that could then
be used in food systems. After trying several
solvent systems, they reported that either
hexane-isopropyl alcohol or hexane-ethyl
alcohol was the most efficient for separating
the egg oil fraction. If a protein isolate is
desirecl, ethyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol
is the appropriate solvent; the use of hexane
altered the integrity of the protein so that
it was no longer an effective emulsifier.
Tokarska and Clandinin (1985) described
a method for the preparation of egg yolk oil
that did not cause decomposition of unstable
polyunsaturated fatty acids. They obtained
optimal extraction of lipid from egg yolk
with ethanol/hexane/water. They reduced
the cholesterol content of the egg yolk oil
by 80 percent by washing with 90 percent
ethanol; the cholesterol content of the prod-
uct was 7 mg/gram of oil.
Solvent extraction procedures do not se-
lectively remove cholesterol and can impair
the functional properties of certain compo-
nents. An alternative to solvent extraction
is supercritical fluid extraction (SFE); the
lipid components need not be extracted and
functional properties are not clestroyed.
A supercritical fluid is produced when
the temperature of a gas is raised above the
critical point and is then subjected! to high
pressure. As pressure is applied to a gas
above critical temperature, the density of
the gas will increase and may approach that
of a liquid, while the viscosity of the gas is
virtually unchanged. This combination of
high density ant! low viscosity allows it to
be an excellent extracting agent. The su-
percritical fluid has the ability to readily
diffuse in and out of the food, thereby
increasing extraction efficiency. By varying
the density of the fluid through pressure
changes, the solubflity of the fluid] can be
adjuster! to preferentially extract certain
components. For egg products, the goal is
to selectively extract cholesterol without
removing the polar lipids responsible for
functional and sensory properties of the
resulting product (G. W. Froning, personal
communication, 1986~.
The food industry is currently using SFE
to decaffeinate coffee; other applications may
be extraction of spices; removal of oil Tom
snack foods; extraction of of} from cottonseecl,
corn, and soybeans; an(l extraction of flavors
from foods. To ~late, no one has used SFE
with eggs or egg products; however, scientists
at the University of Nebraska have initiated
research to extract egg yolk with supercritical
carbon dioxicle at various pressures and tem-
peratures to obtain extraction of cholesterol.
SFE is further discussed by Hettinga in this
volume.
Incorporation of Eggs To Increase
Nutritional Value of Foods
The consumption of shell eggs is rapidly
declining in the United States. One ap-
proach to curbing an overall (that is, shell
plus processed) decline in egg consumption
is to increase efforts for developing new
products made entirely or partly from yolk,
albumin, or whole eggs.
OCR for page 328
328
SUMMARY
From a nutritional point of view, poultry
and egg products are good because they
contain high-quality protein and provide
many other essential nutrients. Even with
their excellent nutritional quality, however,
these products are not the "perfect" food-
nor should they be. No one foot! can be
expected to provide all the nutrients we
require; a balanced diet of many different
foods is essential for well-being.
Nutrient loss during primary or further
processing of poultry is minimal. Aspects of
processing that may further enhance the
nutritional value of poultry are increasing
the utilization of blood, giblets, and bone
residue protein; hot-cleboning; removal of
the abdominal fat pad in ready-to-cook car-
casses; and reduction of fat en c] sodium
content in further-processec! products.
The primary negative aspect of egg nu-
trition is the high amount of cholesterol in
the yolk. Numerous methods have been
proposed to reduce or remove cholesterol
from processed egg products. The industry
needs to look at these approaches as it
develops much-needed, new, egg-based
products.
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Representative terms from entire chapter:
fat deposition
