Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page 69
8-69
close and industrial equipment is frequently used in the research activities
of the universities and institutes. Most institutes are mainly single-
disciplined in their staffing but the Institute of Metal Physics recruits
staff from various disciplines. Young people, especially solid-state physi-
cists and physical chemists, are preferred though they need 'iseasoning" by
exposure to metallurgists.
Students, either directly from secondary school (at age 18) or from
industry (up to age 35), go to teaching institutes which are rather similar
to the German "Technische Hochschule." There, they study for the Diploma
(5-1/2 - 6 years of undergraduate study), Candidate (3 years of graduate
study) and Doctor's degrees. Included in the training for the Diploma is
considerable practical experience, making the students qualified engineers on
graduation. However, the practical experience may be dispensed with in
institutes where the emphasis is on science. In the final year or so of
study, the students specialize, working in smaller classes with a fair amount
of tutorials, and they also prepare a thesis. In their final year, under-
graduates may be sent to a national research institute (e.g. Institute for
Metal Physics) to finish off the Diploma work.
Higher degrees may be awarded by both teaching and research Institutes.
The Candidate degree compares with the Ph.D. Several examinations have to
be passed during the course of study, usually on theoretical background.
There has been growing emphasis in Russia on the physical and fundamental
aspects of metallurgy and a few national research institutes have played a
large part in this process, not only in their actual work but by general
influence. For example, senior scientists at research institutes may take
professorships at teaching institutes for a certain period. Their experience
and basic approach is reflected in the instruction at the teaching institute
and tends to strengthen the treatment of the fundamental background of the
subject.
Financial support for the teaching institute comes partly from the
Ministry of Higher Education which supports both teaching and research activ-
ities, and partly from industry which pays for research on specific industrial
problems carried out on a contract basis.
RES EARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
Statistical Information
Total national expenditures on R&D, as expressed and normalized in
various ways, are given for six advanced countries in Table 8.10. While the
data refer to the mid-sixties, they are probably relevant to current economic-
technological strengths of the nations because the time-lag between R&D and
significant commercialization is often of the order of a decade. The rela-
tively heavy expenditures in the U.K. and even more so in the U.S. reflect
large commitments to defense R&D, with France being the next heaviest.
Canada, Germany, and Japan all showed relatively low expenditures on R&D per
GNP.
By 1971 expenditures had risen in France to 1.8% of GNP (Table 8.11)
but were then decreasing. Japan had risen somewhat more and was still
OCR for page 70
8-70
o ~ ~
· · · ~
ct. U-) ~ ~ O O JO 1 1
o
o ~ ~ Us
Cal
Cal
Cal Go
· · e ~
Cat
Cal
0
ED
1
a_
U]
Sit
Girl
o
a'
C)
Sit
U]
o
Girl
it
Cut
Cal
O ~ ~
· ·
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Cal O O
Cat 1 c-) ~1 an to
00 ~ 00 Cal
00
Cal
· ·
O
00
O
Cal
~ 00
· ·
~ ~ ~ ~ o ~ o oo
~ ~ c~ ~ ~ c~
c~ ~ u~ ~
~ ~ c~ ~
· ·
u~ ~ ~ c~ u~ ~ ~ o
c~ ~ c~ c~ ~ ~
c~ c~ ~
u]
a)
o o ~ bo o
~ ~ ~ o
~ ~ ~ o o
.
~ ~ ~ o ~ ~ ~ o
,' ,i a,) c.
~ ~ s~ ~ ~ ~
·
a
· .,1 ~ c
·- .- ~ ~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o o
^ a) ~ ~ ~ 0
u~ ~ ~ p~ ~ a,
.- o
c~ ~ c: :: o 0
o . o ~ U] o U) o ~ o
~rl cn .,1 0 ~ ~ ^
~ · ~ ~ ~ ~ U) ~ o
Z Z ~ ~ ,1 a) ~ ~ =:
~ u' S' ~ ~ a~
cn ~rl U] ~ ~ ~ · ~ ·
u' cn - e,1 ~ ~ c.
0 ~ 0 ~ ~ s~ ed ~ C.
~ ~s ~ ~ ~ a) ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 0
C) ~ C) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0# 0 E~ E~
OCR for page 71
8-71
Table 8.11 National Expenditures on Research and Development as Percentage
o f GNP
Country 1963-1964 1971 Direction in 1971
,
Canada 1.1
France 1. 6 1.8 Decreasing
Germany 1. 4
Japan 1.4 1.8 Increasing
U.K. 2.3 2.0 Steady
U.S. 3.3 2.6 Decreasing
U.S.S.R. 3.0 Increasing
OCR for page 72
8-72
increasing, while the U.K. had leveled off at about 2.0%. Expenditures in
the U.S. had shown a relatively big drop from 3.3% to 2.6% and were still
decreasing. On the other hand, expenditures in the U.S.S.R. in 1971 were
3.0% and increasing.
Table 8.12 shows the level of commitment of qualified scientists and
engineers to R&D. In 1963-64 the commitment levels in Canada, France, and
Germany were only a little more than half of those in Japan and the U.K.,
and about a quarter of the U.S. level. By 1911 France, Germany, and Japan
had roughly doubled their commitments to R&D, and in the latter two countries
the commitment levels were still increasing. In particular, Japan had
already drawn abreast of the U.S. The U.S., on the other hand, showed
little change between the 1963-64 and 1971 levels and in 1971 the trend was
actually downward, in contrast to all the above countries, the commitment
level in the U.S.S.R. in 1971 was 1-1/2 times that of the U.S. and was
increasing.
Table 8 e 13 shows the distribution in 1963-64 of R&D scientists and
engineers among the industrial, governmental, private nonprofit, and higher-
education sectors in the various countries. The U.K. and the U.S. had rela-
tively heavy concentrations in industry, while in Canada, France, Germany,
and Japan the numbers in industry were about comparable to those in the other
three sectors combined. Outside the industrial sectors, the governmental
sectors dominated in Canada, France, and the U.K., while universities and
nonprofit institutions dominated in Japan, the U.S., and heavily in Germany.
This last reflects the importance of the Max Planck Institutes.
A closer look at the industrial sector is given in Table 8.14 which
shows the R&D expenditures in terms of sources of support. The heavy
support given to industry by the government (presumable mainly defense con-
tracts) is dramatic in the U.S. and, to a somewhat lesser extent, in the
U.K. and France. At the other end of the scale, governmental support of
industrial R&D is quite low in Germany and nearly zero in Japan.
The breakdown of total national expenditures for R&D by percentage
between the defense, space, and nuclear sectors on the one hand, and all
other sectors on the other is shown in Table S.15. Large variations among
countries are evident. However, it is worth noting that as a percentage of
GNP the expenditures on R&D in the "All Other (civilian) Sectors" differed
relatively little, ranging from 1.1% to 1.5%, except for Canada which was
0.8%. Furthermore, Figure 8.2 shows that the dollar expenditures in these
sectors in the U.S., Germany, France, the U.K. and Canada followed remarkably
parallel growth rates from the mid-fifties to the mid-sixties.
For the purpose of this report, some particularly interesting compari-
sons are given in Table 8.16 on the structure of R&D expenditures in manu-
facturing industries. The industrial groupings for statistical purposes are
as follows:
Mechanical -
Other
Science - Based - Aircraft
Electrical (including instruments)
Chemicals (including drugs and petroleum)
Machinery
Basic metals (including fabricated metal products)
Other transport equipment
- Allied products ~rubber, textiles, food and drinks
Miscellaneous Manufacturing
OCR for page 73
8-73
Table 8.12 Number of Qualified Scientists and Engineers on Research and
Development Per 10,000 of Population
Country 1963-1964 1971 Direction in 1971
Canada
7
France 7 12 Steady
Germany 6 15 Increasing
Japan 12 25 Increasing
U.K. 11 ?
U.S. 24 25 Decreasing
U.S.S.R. 37 Increasing
1
OCR for page 74
8-74
CD
.
3
1
_,
o
a)
a)
Cal
So
CO
Pa
em
U'
a)
em
be
U]
UD
em
·rl
C)
Cal
e
e
o
ED
.
ED
O O O O
O O O O
Cot ) ~ A) O
O
10 0 1 0
a'
· He O
~ Cal
Cal
C)
-
L\J
Sot
Cal
~ He Cry O
O UP
O
O ~ ~ ~
ED ~ Cot
~ ~ Cal UP
He A) A ~
Cot ~
O O O O
O A) ~1
00
In
us In O Lo
Cal . 1_
00
UP ~ Cal
em ~
~ O
O elm
O
Z
~ a,
En sot Cd
em 0~0
O S ~ elm
~ C' ~ ~
OCR for page 75
8-75
1
_'
o
Cal
o
C)
SO
o
U)
,n
U)
· -
U,
so
Girl
o
C'
a)
On
.
Do
a)
Ed
sot
C)
a)
CJ
set
-
~U
o
U]
·
~ Do 1 1
~ o ~
· · ~
Up ~
.
Cal
.
of
Cal
.
to
1 ~
.
·
·
o
to
·
· · ·
1
:^
Set ~ ~
co lo e~ hi
~ o o ~
c) ~ o
l
OCR for page 76
8-76
Table 8.15 Gross National Expenditures on Research and Development
(1963-64)
Defense, Space, and
Nuclear Sectors
All Other
Sectors
% of Total % of Total % of GNP
Canada 26.2 73.8 0.8
France 43.4 56.6 1.1
Germany 15.9 84.1 1.2
Japan 0 100.0 1.4
U.K. 40.2 59.8 1.4
U.S. 56.3 43.7 1.5
OCR for page 77
8-77
Fl GURE 8.2 GOVERNMENT FUNDS FOR REsEaRcH
AND DEVELOPMENT OTHER THAN
SPACE, NUCLEAR, aND DEFENSE
RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT
~ in rnit!ions of U. S. $
3000
2000
1000
100
UN ITE D
STATE S
_ ~
_,
_ ~
~ FRAN CE
~ GERMANY' / UN ITE D
/ ~ KINGDOM
/ /,' 1
/ /,'
- J 'I'd
/ ~ CANADA
_ ~ -
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
1953 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 YEAR
OCR for page 78
8-78
~ o o o o o o
’ ~ e e e · -
E~ O O O O O O
O O O O O O O
EN ~ ~ ~ ~1 ~1 ~1
_ - _
’ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
O ~ 00 ~ O · -
E~ ~ ~ ~
En
·rl
Sly
En
girl
VO
a)
.~1 .
En
girl
~1 ~
'-
U.
~ '-
'A
U)
a,
girl
~1
O
O
O ~
Sly V
~ U'
Y ’
U] ~
EN
EN
o
~ U.
U. O
H
~ O ~ O ~ ~
~ ~ · e e e
~ ~ O ~ ~ 00
.
~ ~D ~ ~ ~ ~
e e e e e e
C~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 00
_
~ 00 ~ ~ O ~
e e e e e ~
00 ~ ~ ~ L~
C~ C~ C~
~ e
~ U]
H ~
~ O
’
’
E~
o
E~
~;
H
z
~’
C:
e
E~
o
~ 00 ~
e e e
~ ~ O
.
U)
H ’
u: E~
’
· · e
C~ ~ ~
e e e
00 00 ~
C~
1 1
O ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ e e ~ e e
00 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
’
E~
O
E~
e e e e e e
c~ cr.
I_ ~ ~ ~ ~ U~
U)
’
1
z
H
U.
O ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
e e e e e e
~ ~ C~ ~ C~ C~
E~
C~
oo ~ ~ ~ c~ ~
e e e e e ~
O
C~ C~ C~ C~ ~ ~
E~
’
~:
C'
H
’
~ ~ ~ O
· · · · ~ ~
~ C~ ~ C~
_
1
·m c
U] ~ C~
e ~ ~ C~
= - = -
U
. -
U~
1
· -
~ ~ ·m
C~ ~ ~ ~
S~ ~ ~m
a
C)
U
o
U)
~
S~
~
U
O
_
_
. - . -
V ~
H H
OCR for page 79
8-79
As might be expected, the countries with larger economic resources invest
relatively more heavily in the science-based industries (reflecting also, in
general, a greater proportion of effort going into defense R&D in those
countries).
A more detailed breakdown of R&D expenditure in manufacturing ~ndus-
tries in the major countries is given in Tables 8.11, 8.18 and 8.19.
The R&D technical manpower totals in Table 8.20 are particularly infor-
mative; there are strong efforts in certain industries in some countries
reflecting particular local advantages in natural resources, but in nearly
all industrial sectors where data are given, the total effort in the U.S. is
greater, often considerably greater, then the combined totals of Canada,
France, Germany, Japan, and the U.K. However, if all the figures were
available, then probably the U.S. would lag somewhat the combined totals
for the ferrous and nonferrous metal industries. This conclusion is further
reinforced by the data given in Table 8.21 which compares the U.S. expenditure
and technical manpower on R&D with that of the whole of Western Europe. These
figures might suggest that if there is any lag of U.S. industry vis-a-vis
the world it is not because of an inadequate quantity of R&D effort; it is
noteworthy that the U.S. industries with the narrowest lead, or even a lag,
by this measure include predominantly the basic materials industries -
ferrous and nonferrous metals, chemicals, rubber, and textiles. If there
are weaknesses in the U.S. R&D effort in these industries, perhaps one should
look for explanation not at the magnitude of effort, primarily, but at its
quality, its organization, and the general institutional barriers to
innovation.
It appears that massive federally-supported R&D programs in those
industries with defense and space contracts has contributed to U.S. leader-
ship in the aerospace, computer, and nuclear industries. But it requires
sustained massive support to maintain leadership as other countries are
able to follow closely with much smaller R&D efforts simply by copying the
technology, often making only modest modifications. The price of a small
edge in technical leadership is extremely high and even with its huge
resources, the U.S. may well have to select those industries in which it
needs to lead, technologically, and those in which it can afford to follow
closely.
Concerning priorities, it is useful to examine the trends in governmental
R&D expenditures in various countries. Some of these are summarized in
Table 8.22 where R&D has been grouped into 6 broad categories and given simple
rank orderings. (The spacings between industrial rankings differ considerably
and, of course, it has to be kept in mind that (i) defense and space
expenditures dominate heavily in the U.S. while they are essentially absent
in Japan, and that (ii) governmental funding of Japanese industrial R&D
is negligible.)
Table 8.23 gives data on the percentages of highly qualified manpower
in different industrial sectors and in the total labor force. Thase exhibit
a slightly heavier indulgence in professional and technical people in most
U.S. industrial sectors than the average of the Western countries but, apart
from the service sector, the Japanese industrial sectors show a very much
OCR for page 133
8-133
It should be noted that research in the universities can be supported
either through the SRC or through the University Grants Committee (UGC).
Funding through the UGC recognizes the fact that teaching and research are
essential academic functions while the SRC support, in general, is used for
initiating researches of special timeliness and promise.
Over the period of 1965-1970, financial stringency has forced the SRC to
develop steadily its policy of selectivity and concentration. Emphasis has
also shifted in the direction of supporting more graduate studies rather than
research studentships, and overall to favor awards in applied science and
those having industrial potentiality rather than awards in pure science.
Awards have also been used to encourage the movement of graduates into
industry and schoolteaching and to promote university-industry collaboration.
The SRC has leaned toward research and training in engineering, for example,
by limiting the support for research assistants and increasing the support for
technicians. It has increased the number of fellowships to facilitate the
return flow of graduates from North America to the U.K. It has encouraged
coupling between secondary schools and SRC Laboratories through joint
appointments.
The SRC principles that guide selectivity and concentration in the
support of research are broadly:
(a) Certain areas, within a discipline or embracing a number of disci-
plines, will be selected for more favorable-than-average support during a
given period, on the basis of a review of their special potential for
advancing basic science, or their economic or community value, or all three.
Other important criteria will be the economy of scarce manpower and the
optimum utilization of unique or expensive facilities in universities,
national and international laboratories, and in industry.
(b) A limited number of university departments will be given more
favorable-than-average support to enable them to concentrate effort in certain
areas; such departments will be selected on the basis of their leadership,
past achievement, present expertise, or other relevant factors (e.g., ability
to collaborate with industry).
(c) This concentration of resources will be planned by shifting to
favored areas from less favored areas rather than by simple addition.
(d) Nevertheless, it will be essential part of SRC policy - and well
publicized - that some support will always be available to any outstanding
individual in any part of any subject for work of sufficient "timeliness and
promise" (e.g., imagination, novelty or relevance to valuable goals).
(e) The pattern of preferred topics and places will be kept under contin-
uous review and not frozen. This, with item (d) above, will make it possible
for any department or individual to grow, with SRC help, from a small start
to a major group in any field, provided there are sufficient ideas, effort,
and backing from the university itself. With a limited growth rate for SRC
as a whole, it will be necessary to reduce support in major areas where
programs have been completed or have lost their impetus, in order to provide
backing for new centers.
OCR for page 134
8-134
(f) The degree of concentration, i.e., the proportion of the funds given
to selected areas or to selected departments, must depend upon the nature of
the subject (e.g., need for very large equipment), the existing degree of
concentration, the resources available (e.g., the number of trained experts
in the field), and so on. But it will be the subject of appropriate review
by SRC, in the light of open discussion with university and other people
concerned.
(g) Some of the principles to be followed in exercising selectivity in
support of astronomy, space and nuclear physics research differ in important
respects from those arising at present in other branches of science and
engineering. Because of high threshold costs and large capital installations,
consideration has to be given to the creation of regional or national
facilities or participation in international organizations. The selection
and support of university teams by the SRC to take advantage of such facili-
ties requires close collaboration between university personnel and the staff
of national and international laboratories as well as an obligation to accept
the discipline which such collaboration entails. Similar considerations are
likely to arise in other fields where major engineering installations are
required to be shared by universities in furtherance of particular research
programs.
(h) The research program of the SRC Laboratories and Observatories will
be kept under review to ensure the selection of the most promising subjects
for study and the consequent necessary concentration of resources. SRC
establishments will also provide the optimum help within their power to those
engaged in research and development in universities and industry who need to
use the special facilities and expertise possessed by the establishments.
(i) Because the implementation of these policies means that SRC will
inevitably exercise more influence over university research, it is essential
that SRC should make sure that its policy is fully known and understood
throughout the university sector, and that adequate opportunities are pro-
vided for the policy to be discussed with the University Grants Committee,
with the other Research Councils as appropriate, and with universities; and
for provisional proposals in particular topics to be examined and discussed
before decisions are taken.
In spite of the SRC's increasing concern to support work of economic and
social value, most of its funds go to supporting fundamental, long-term,
curiosity-oriented research as distinguished from mission-oriented research.
"But as far as the research scientist or engineer himself is concerned, the
interest and methods in either kind of research are often the same and one may
turn into the other at short notice." The SRC proclaims that "Basic research
is of great intellectual and cultural interest but it also leads to advances
in scientific knowledge which may have practical importance in the long-term
and it provides an indispensable training medium at the graduate level in
universities. One of the characteristics of fundamental science is the way in
which discoveries in one field permeate other fields of science and technology
so that the bodies of traditional disciplines are blurred and progress
OCR for page 135
8-135
depends on interdisciplinary collaboration." Nevertheless, as the data show,
the SRC over the years 1967-1969 has reduced somewhat its support for basic
research and increased its support for applied science and technology. This
is in recognition of the fact that the SRC "must relate its support of
university research and graduate education to national needs, for example in
the engineering industries, and to social needs in transport, building, noise,
and pollution.
However, there are signs that, on the average, those students going into
applied science graduate work have lower quality first degrees than those
going on into pure science - "All eligible candidates for Advanced Course
Studentships with first and upper seconds were successful. In applied
science all eligible candidates with lower seconds received awards." And for
the research studentships, Hall eligible candidates with first class honors
were successful. In applied science all eligible candidates with upper
second class honors were successful. In pure science 225 eligible candidates
with upper second class honors were unsuccessful." In connection with its
awards, the SRC is trying a number of variations designed to enhance better
university-industry coupling and the training of people for industry.
It should be realized that, roughly speaking, the number of SRC awards
is approximately half of the number of graduate students working in fields
within the realm of the SRC.
The number of first degree graduates was still rising in 1970 - the
forecast figures were 13,700 scientists and 9,700 engineers, with an
estimated increase above the 1969 level of 8% overall, 3% in scientists, 16%
in engineers. The overall increase in "radiations forecast for 1970-72 is
5% per year. The SRC is basing its planning up to 1975 on a growth rate of
5% per year in the number of graduates.
Policies, priorities and their implementation in the various scientific
fields within the preview of the SRC are handled by various Boards. Those of
most interest to COSMAT are the Boards of Engineering and Science.
Engineering Board: - Membership of the Board is about equally represented
by the universities and industry. The Board is responsible for the support of
research and graduate training in aeronautical and civil engineering, chemical
engineering and technology, electrical and systems engineering, mechanical
and production engineering, control engineering, metallurgy and materials,
computing science, and polymer science. Separate committees are responsible
for each of these areas.
The Board recognizes the underlying unity of science, technology, and
engineering and expects to continue to give a measure of research support to
pure science departments insofar as this is relevant to the furtherance of its
own broad objectives, for example, in the field of materials science and poly-
mers. The Board is also concerned with studies of creativity and innovation
in engineering.
The pursuit of research aimed at advancing the state of knowledge in
engineering or applicable science is not in question, nor the need to develop
areas of potential importance bridging accepted disciplines since it is here
that much work of immediate relevance is to be found. It is at the interface
or overlap with industrial or governmental research and exploitation that
the university role has to be more clearly defined.
From a review undertaken by the Metallurgy and Materials Committee, the
OCR for page 136
8-136
following areas have been identified as meriting special attention: composite
materials, surface and interfaces, and process metallurgy.
The Aeronautical and Civil Engineering Committee has identified in
descending order of priority: transport, building design, sound and vibration,
fluid flow, structures, and aeronautics.
The Mechanical and Production Engineering Committee has selected the
following areas for further study: medical engineering, marine technology,
and computer-aided design. It is also proposed to sponsor research into the
fundamentals of grinding. Areas previously rated meriting special support
include desalination, high-temperature processes, and electro-chemistry.
The Control Engineering Committee has sponsored concentrated programs
at universities which include, for example, development of a mathematical
model for a hot-strip rolling mill, its application in a much simplified
overall control strategy, and the specification of an automation scheme which
is expected to lead to increased productivity.
The Polymer Science Committee, relatively new, is concerning itself
initially with synthesis, thermal stability and degradation, processing and
physical/mechanical properties.
Science Board: - The Science Board, with its various committees, is
responsible for pure and applied research and graduate training in biology,
chemistry, enzyme chemistry and technology, mathematics, and physics (other
than astronomy, nuclear physics, radio and space research).
The Science Board emphasizes the individual in research, and the culti-
vation of depth of thinking together with a measure of breadth of outlook. It
emphasizes the support of high-quality work, and favors especially a few
selected areas of high scientific promise or value to the community.
The Chemistry Committee identified photochemistry, especially research
on nanosecond and picosecond flash photolysis, and organometallic chemistry
as meriting special support.
The Physics Committee has surveyed needs in the whole of its field
(see below). Experiments using neutron-beam facilities at Harwell are being
sponsored covering studies of the magnetic structure of solids, the dynamics
of magnetization, the position of light atoms in crystal structures, the
dynamics of atom movements in liquids, molecular rotations and vibrations,
and defects in crystals.
A Physics-Chemical Measurements Unit is providing an analysis service
(infrared, NMR, ~ossbauer spectroscopy) to universities, making use of facili-
ties at Harwell and Aldernas ton.
The Physics Committee has identified the following problems, new areas,
and techniques likely to need special support in the near future. Solid-
state physics, generally. Plasma physics; neutron beams and the need for a
high flux beam reactor; synchrotron radiation for studying gases and solids;
ion implantation in semiconductors and other solids; amorphous state; surface
studies; use of on-line computers; collisions between atoms and low-energy
heavy particles; dye lasers; radiative recombination and energy-transfer
processes in solids; mode-locked lasers giving picosecond pulses; ferro-
electric materials; technological magnetism; electronic structure of alloys
to match recent advances in pure metals; laser scattering spectroscopy;
OCR for page 137
8-137
nonlinear optics; electronic properties of polymers; inert-gas solids;
critical phenomena at very low temperatures, superconductor tunnelling
phenomena.
Clearly the physics community in the U.K. will be putting much of its
emphasis on materials science.
Detailed breakdowns of recent support patterns by the SRC are given in
Tables 8.40 and 8.41.
Scandinavia
The Scandinavian countries, Denmark, Finland, Norway, and Sweden, are
relatively small, poor In many natural resources, but are highly developed
countries. Survival and progress of their living standard in the face of
competition from the larger economic units of the world are spurring mutual
attempts to cooperate in the technological spheres; one of the areas for these
attempts has been materials though so far not with very tangible results.
Denmark
Denmark has no natural materials resources except for lime, clay, sand,
and gravel.
There are three State Universities and a Technical University which
perform research in building materials, metals, polymers, ceramics, textiles,
and solid-state physics.
The Danish Academy of Sciences operates 22 applied research institutes;
within the materials field these cover electronic materials, asphalt, wood,
radioisotopes, paint, and natural organic materials. Some contract research
is conducted in these institutes.
There is considerable activity in solid-state physics which embraces the
Technical University, the Orietal Institute of Arhus University, and the Ris
Research Center of the Danish A.E.C.
Industry sponsors some research institutes, for example, in building
materials, and much in-house R&D in the chemical and electrical industries.
There is no official policy in the field of materials research but the
Danish Loan Fund for Industrial Research provides some risk money for
industrial R&D. Attempts are being made to establish a program in the field
of building materials research by the Danish Council for Scientific and
Industrial Research. For a time, attention was given to the possibility of
establishing a central building materials research institute but the estimated
costs were prohibitive and, instead, it was concluded that research in this
field must be covered by co-ordinating the activities of the existing insti-
tutes and industries.
Find and
The most important raw material in Finland to date is wood - for building,
fuel, paper and pulp, and pulp products. The industry now runs at the
OCR for page 138
8-138
.
em
V
o
Cal
V
SO
a)
U)
V
a)
Al
V
U)
o
En
·rl
C)
o
U:
o
U'
em/
U]
:^
’
lo
.
En
U]
U)
O · -
U)
a)
C) ~
U)
’
En
Marl
row US
En
~ O
U
U] ~
a)
C)
U]
Pa
Io ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o
o Cal o
Cal
o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ Go of ~ Cal
Go Go ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o ~ Cal
I
o ~ ~ ~ oo
o
1 1
C~
C~ ~ o
o
1 1 1
1 1 1
U~
o
I C~ C~ ~ ~ O ~ ~ 1 - 1~ ~ ~ 1 1 1
U~ U~ o C~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o ~ ~ oo
C~ U~ ~ ~ U~ C~ C~ ~ ~D
00 ~ ~ ~J L~ ~ 1` ~J ~J O C~ 00 ~ C~ 1 1 1 0
o 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o
C~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ C~ o C~
I ·n c~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0~ 0 00 ~ ~ 1 1 1 0
C~ ~ oo ~ C~ ~ oo
oo ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ C~ o C~
~o
·~
s~
.-
·- ~
]
· · ~ ~ ~
'- ~ ~ b0 V O .,1
.~l c,, a) ~ ~ ' -
a) ~ 0
c) ~ .- ~ ~ o .
) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ·
· ~ ~ e
~ ~ · ~ 0 a) c' ~ ~ cO
.,' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a
:
e~ ~ ~ .- +
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o o ~ ~
~ o · .- ~ · ~ ~ ~ ·
o ~ ~i ~ ~ c~ a ~ ,= .~: ~ s-~ e~~ C,) ~ 0) ~ a~ >~ C
O ~ ~ ~ ~ .-
a) .,1 ~ ~ 0 ~ c' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 0 ~ 0 0
’ ~ c ~ ~ ) c) ~ u~ ~ X ~ ’ Pt u~ Z O ~ :;Z ~, E~
OCR for page 139
8-139
C.
o ~
o
1 ·,1
U.
o
-
a,
3
’
U'
Sol
1
Go
or
Go
1
. ,
·rl
u
o
_'
lo
CX)
An'
~9
ED
i
o
o
-lo
Go
0 ~1, 1 ~ O ~ Cn ~ ~ Do ~ ~ ~ ~1
Go ~ ~ ~ - . o ~ ~ ~ Go co
Cal ~ ~ o Cal Cal ~ co ~ Go Cal ~ o
I· ~ GO ~ ~ ~ lo) 1 Cal O O hi ~ Cal ~ ~ ~ 00 l~~ ';t
O ~ ~ ~ Cal ~ ED ~ ~ O cat
Z ~ Cal . ~ ~ i .
·
o CN1 00 0 ~ ~ 00 1 C~ ~ O ~ t~ 0~ ·n oo ~ I ~ 0
O ~ ~ ~ ~ u~ ~ 1 ~ ~ 00 ~ ~ O 00 ~ as
o ~ ~ ~ ~ c~ oo ~ c
- ~ ~ ~ ~
ua ~
I· (X) C~ ~) ~ 1 ~) 1 ~ ~t w) c~ ~ ~X) ~1 ~ ~ 1 ~ oo
o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ C~
z ~ C~
O O . O ~ oO ~ 1 - 1 ~ a) ~o ~ ~) ~ ~i 1 - 1 1 1
o C~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ C~ ~ ~ C~ C~
o ~ o Ln ~ ox ~ ~ U~ oo oo ~ o oo
o ~ ~
1 ~1 ~I CX) ~ U~ ~t ~ O
CS, ~ C~ ~ U~
1 1 1 ~D
c~
~o
d
· ' o.o .H
. - d
C,q
· · ~ ~ ~
·,1 u~ =: bco c~) O ,1
.,' ~ ~ ~ ~ . -
V
a~ d ~ u'
+
C) ~ ~ ~ ~ o .
~1 U) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ·
~ U: U' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ . ~ ~ ~
C) ~ · ~ o ~ C} ~ =: co ~ ~ V
.,' ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .-
U C' ~ ~ ~ .
~ . - ~ u ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ O
~ ~ ~n ~ o m ~ ~ ~ ~ o O ~ u,
·~ - ~ · ~ ~ ~ · ~ o o
~1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ a
O O O ~ ~ ~ ~ U ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
a' ~rl ~ =: O ~ C~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ U O ~ O O
’ ~ ~ ~ L) [z3 U) ~ ~ ~ ’ p! U] ~; O C~ Z &d E~
OCR for page 140
8-140
do
U)
U]
o
o
0
CO
o
_'
JO
U'
to
a
SO
~0
o
SO
Carl
C)
o
Cal
SO
CO
em
C'
Cal
.
.
Ed
TIC
o
Ed
C) CO
SO
US SO
a)
lo:
U
US SO
Jo O
U:
CO
·rl
En
~ En
· - .~l
En
~ Earl
· - C)
C)
SO
U.
SO
Cot
o
UD
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~o c~ ~ ~ ~ l ~ o ~
u~ C~ ~ u~ D ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~D 100 00 C~ O
O O ~ Ln ~ ~ u~ ~ 00 1 ~ ~ 1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~0
' ~ oo ~ O ~ c~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ cr a~
c~ ~ C3
u]
o
co
==
L~ ~ ~ ~ C~ ~ ~ O ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ C~ ~ C~ U~ O O
Ln ~ ~ oo o o .-
.^ u
~ ~ ~ o ~
o
o
u
- 1 `;t O U~ 1 0 1 1 ~J oo 1 1 ~ 1 1 1 0 0 ~ 1 C`l
~ o u~ oo ~ ~ c~ ~ ~ ~ c~ ~ ~
~ c~ o ~ ~ u~ ~ ~ ~
c~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
~ c~ ~
u]
a
c
~
u
~
1 ~
~ -
o
o · · ~
d d
O U]
C3
n
.,1 ~ o.-
o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
u' ~n ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
C-) ~ ~ o U
~ c) ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
C
.- C) .,1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
C~ ~ ,l C) U] U~ · ,l ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o
s~ u~ cn ·,1 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ·
C~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
=: ~ ~ c) ~ c, ~ O
cn cn ~ ~ `= ~ ~ ~ == ~ ~ ~m ~ ~
o p~ = s~ · ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o~ ~ ~- ~ ~ ~ o 0
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ o ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .-
O o o ~ O ~l ~ ~ ~ ~ d ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
S~ C) ·,1 ~ ~ ~ ~= ~ 0 0 ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ e~ O
O ~ N
~ ~ ~ ~ ·- ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ O O ~ ~ ~ O ~ ~ ~
’ u, n~ z m c' ~ >: z n~ ’ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ E~ ’ z
~n
~n
0 S~
~ C~
u
o
E~
a,
0
a,1
U]
cn
U
0
U C~
~ z
~o
a
=:
E~
iC
OCR for page 141
8-141
capacity of the forests. Research is directed at more efficient processing
and use of wood.
Other industries have developed significantly since World War II,
particularly in metals - iron and steel, nonferrous metals such as copper,
zinc, cobalt, nickel, chromium, selenium, vanadium, titanium, and rare earth
oxides. Finland is relatively well endowed with the relevant minerals even
though production so far is small. As a consequence, research is very active
in the metals and mining industries and associated Geological Survey-sponsored
programs. By contrast, little R&D is done in the metals-consuming industries
though there are signs of growing awareness of materials questions. The
chemical industry is expected to expand most rapidly in the next few years,
and it is in need of more R&D not only because of its relation to the metals
and forest industries, but also because of the increasing production of
plastics.
Nuclear energy is also expected to grow in importance, and the Finnish
A.E.C. has initiated programs for research on radiation damage, corrosion'
etc e
There has been much university expansion going on, and the need for
expanding teaching staff and facilities made it difficult to provide at the
same time for research or the setting up of new interdisciplinary materials
departments. Instead, academic research is carried out more along tradi-
tional departmental lines, metallurgy and solid-state physics being the most
prominent in the materials field. However, the former is performed in
engineering departments and the latter in physics departments, with the
traditional sharp division between them.
This division between science and engineering also projects into the
organization of National Scientific Commissions and the State Research
Institutes. The State Institute of Technical Research is organized along
traditional lines with laboratories specializing in various technologies.
In a pending reorganization of this Institute, there is an attempt to make it
more interdisciplinary by establishing an integrated materials division.
Norway
There are 4 universities in Norway (Oslo, Bergen, Trondheim, and Tromso).
Trondheim University also includes the Technical University of Trondheim
where most of the academic research in materials in Norway is conducted.
Some is also done at Oslo and only minor amounts elsewhere. Materials
research is carried out in the traditional departments at Trondheim and Oslo -
physics, chemistry, metallurgy, etc. but at Trondheim there is a Professional
Coordinating Council for constructional materials research.
There are research institutes to support industry and to cover specific
technological fields, e.g., building research' pulp and paper research wood
working and wood technology, atomic energy, materials testing, etc. There
are also some broader institutes such as the Central Institute for Industrial
Research at Oslo (where about 40% of the activity can be termed materials
research). Overall, most research is carried out in government or government-
supported laboratories.
OCR for page 142
8-142
There is no national policy for materials research. The Research
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research includes committees organized
along traditional lines - chemistry, metallurgy, technical physics, etc.
There is no committee for materials, and so materials research gets split up
among the committees. Furthermore the projects are to a large extent evalu-
ated by committees which are use-oriented. This has its advantages and
disadvantages, an example of the latter is that separate corrosion programs
are sponsored by each of several committees. However, there is growing
awareness of the need to coordinate the activities of the committees in the
materials field.
More than 25% (i.e., 9.5x106 of all the funds allocated by the Council
go to projects directly concerned with materials. Of this, approximately
60% is directed to metallurgical research (e.g., electro-metallurgical
processes, alloy development, corrosion, composite materials, quality improve-
ment, Welding problems, fracture mechanics, etc.~; less than 10% (i.e.,
0.8xlO Kr) to plastics and high polymers; somewhat more than 10% to electronic
materials; about 6% to ceramics, and the rest to specific materials projects
(e.g., building construction problems). Tile emphasis on metals reflects the
fact that metallurgical products constitute the country's largest export
field, while shipbuilding and machine tools are the larger industries in the
country.
Sweden
Materials research is conducted at Swedish universities, special insti-
tutes, and industrial laboratories. The first two tend to emphasize fundamen-
tal research but are recognizing the interdisciplinary nature of materials
research. They are beginning to coordinate the programs of research groups
and to cooperate in optimizing the use of expensive equipment and facilities.
Indeed, the Royal Institute of Technology KTH (Stockholm) and the Chalmers
Institute of Technology CTH (Gothenburg) have organized materials research
centers comprising various departments of the two institutions as well as
interested parties from the outside. There is also an interdepartmental
materials research body at Uppsala University.
In addition there are trade research institutes oriented to specific
industries and sponsored by industrial groups. Certain special research
institutes, though oriented towards particular industries, are not industrially-
sponsored and are therefore rather independent.
Materials research, principally ferrous, is conducted mainly at KTH, the
Institute for Metal Research, and the Swedish Atomic Energy Company. At KTH
and the Institute for Metal Research the emphasis .s on physical metallurgy
and metallography.
Polymer research is also conducted at KTH and some at CTH.
Materials research at CTH is primarily solid-state physics and applied
physics, with broad emphasis on surface physics and chemistry and the border
area between solid-state theory and physical metallurgy. Applied work is
focused on composites and powder metallurgy.
Materials research at the Lund Institute of Technology (LTH) is concerned
mainly with building materials and fracture mechanics.
OCR for page 143
8-143
Materials research at Uppsala University is mostly physical metallurgy.
Ceramics and glass research is conducted at the Silicate Research
Institute (Gothenburg) and the Glass Research Institute (Vaxjo) - both trade
research institutes.
The Defense Research Institute is concerned with heat-resisting materials,
composites, corrosion (especially with titanium metals), and protective
coatings.
The Atomic Energy Company works on reactor applications, deformation and
rapture mechanics, structural defects, and corrosion.
The principal governmental body for sponsoring and overseeing materials
research is the Swedish Board for Technical Development (STU), officially
subordinate to the Ministry of Industry but enjoying considerable freedom
while cooperating with other sponsoring agencies, private research organi-
zations, and private industry. It makes use of expert committees to advise
on R&D matters. One of these committees is concerned with the materials
field; its chairman is the President of the Academy of Engineering Science.
The STU offers three types of support - for research with no obligation for
repayment, to industrial development projects with a conditional obligation to
repay, and to collective trade research with the industrial sector in question
as a financial partner to at least 50%.
The STU has given high priority to materials technology in its appropria-
tions budget, amounting to between 15 and 20% of its total budget.
Steel is regarded still as a pivatal material for the future through
advances in strength, toughness, weldability, and by improved production
processes and the development of new alloys. Steam and atomic energy
technologies call for greater heat, corrosion, and radiation resistance.
Powder metallurgy is expected to grow in importance for forming more complex
structural parts. It is anticipated that similar trends toward better tough-
ness and heat resistance will also occur with the nonferrous metals based on
aluminum and titanium.
Polymers are projected to become a rapidly growing structural material.
Research will be necessary for developing polymers with advanced mechanical
properties to substitute for metals, also with high-temperature and radiation
resistance. Environmentally degradable polymers will also be needed.
Consumption of ceramics in the building industry is expected to decrease;
bricks will be replaced by prefabricated wall sections, plastics will replace
ceramic drain and sewer pipes. For lining furnaces, ceramics better able to
withstand thermal shock will require continuing R&D.
Composites are regarded as a growth field - for aeronautical engineering,
for weapons, transportation equipment, and for many parts in industry (e.g.,
pumps, pipes, etc.), where the extra strength is worth the extra cost. Less
expensive composites and fibers are needed, particularly carbon fibers, and
more automation of manufacturing processes.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
research institutes
