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Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1275
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Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1276
Page 1277 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1277
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Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1278
Page 1279 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1279
Page 1280 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1280
Page 1281 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1281
Page 1282 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1282
Page 1283 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1283
Page 1284 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1284
Page 1285 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1285
Page 1286 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1286
Page 1287 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1287
Page 1288 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1288
Page 1289 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1289
Page 1290 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1290
Page 1291 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1291
Page 1292 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1292
Page 1293 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1293
Page 1294 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1294
Page 1295 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1295
Page 1296 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1296
Page 1297 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1297
Page 1298 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1298
Page 1299 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1299
Page 1300 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1300
Page 1301 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1301
Page 1302 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1302
Page 1303 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1303
Page 1304 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1304
Page 1305 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1305
Page 1306 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1306
Page 1307 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1307
Page 1308 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1308
Page 1309 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1309
Page 1310 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1310
Page 1311 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1311
Page 1312 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1312
Page 1313 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1313
Page 1314 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1314
Page 1315 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1315
Page 1316 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1316
Page 1317 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1317
Page 1318 Cite
Suggested Citation:"Index." Institute of Medicine. 2005. Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/10490.
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Page 1318

Below is the uncorrected machine-read text of this chapter, intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text of each book. Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.

Index A defined, 3, 22, 26 derivation of, 28, 31, 32, 47 Absorption of nutrients. See Bioavailability; extrapolation between other age groups, Intestinal absorption; individual 26-27, 31-32, 34, 46, 47, 283 nutrients indicators used to set, 28 Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution methods used to set, 44-46, 47, 280-283, Ranges (AMDRs). See also individual 385-390, 456-457, 460-461, 464, 465, nutrients and life-stage groups 466-470, 471-472, 619-621, 662-665 defined, 14-15, 28, 39, 772, 941 prevalence of intakes above, 789 evidence considered for, 15-16, 769 RDA compared, 6, 26-27 rationale for, 14, 28, 784 uncertainty in, 26, 44 uses, 29, 941, 945, 946, 948-949 uses, 26, 936, 939-940, 944-945, 946, 948 Adaptation, nutritional Adiposity, 125, 130, 189, 200, 220, 379, 832. amino acid metabolism, 618, 619 See also Body fat content basal metabolism, 201 Adolescents, ages 9 through 18 years. See to carbohydrate-free diet, 277-278, 293 also Puberty/pubertal development defined, 149, 973 added sugars, 1206-1209, 1216-1219 in energy balance, 149-151, 201, 220, ages 9 through 13 years, 35, 386, 463- 223-224, 452 464, 470, 624-627, 631, 665, 673-674, glucose metabolism, 277-278 769, 1126-1129, 1138-1143, 1172- growth impairment as, 151, 220, 437 1173, 1178-1181, 1206-1207, 1216- to high-fat diets, 452 1217, 1232-1233, 1238-1239 pregnancy and lactation, 34, 47, 197, ages 14 through 18 years, 35, 193, 201- 290, 291, 650 202, 292, 293, 386, 389-390, 463-464, to protein metabolism, 47, 276, 279, 465-466, 470, 471-472, 674-675, 729, 605, 611, 650, 657, 694 769, 1128-1129, 1143-1145, 1181- to starvation, 277-279, 605 1183, 1208-1209, 1218-1219, 1232- weight as, 150 1233, 1238-1239 Adequate Intakes (AIs). See also individual AIs, 26-27, 33, 385-386, 388-389, 463-464, macronutrients and life-stage groups 470, 471-472, 632-633 criteria used to derive, 7-8, 10-11, 44-46 AMDRs, 769, 816, 844, 945 1275

1276 INDEX amino acids, 664-670, 673-675, 702-703 saturated fatty acids, 474, 835, 1232- aortic fatty streaks, 815 1233, 1238-1239 aspartame, 702-703 special considerations, 216-219 BMR, 178-179 sugar intakes, 312, 323, 1206-1209, 1216- body composition and size, 142, 178, 1219 181, 626-629 TEE, 176, 178, 181, 1126-1129, 1138- bone mineralization, density, and mass, 1145, 1172-1173, 1178-1183, 1200, 66, 180 1202 brain development, 288-289 trans fatty acids, 456 carbohydrate, 284-285, 292, 1232-1233, vitamin and mineral intakes, 1232-1233, 1238-1239 1238-1239 EARs, 33, 46-47, 284, 292, 293, 632, 664- weight, 216-219, 650, 652, 653, 655 669, 673-675 Adults, ages 19 years and older. See also EERs, 175, 176-182, 193, 201-202, 216- Age/aging; Lactation; Pregnancy 219 added sugars, 295, 788-789, 1210-1215, energy intakes, 473, 474, 1206-1209, 1220-1225 1216-1219, 1232-1233, 1238-1239 ages 19 through 50 years, 35, 46, 184, extrapolation of data from adult values, 186-189, 205-213, 286, 288, 292, 293, 26-27 296, 323, 371, 388, 389, 447, 450-452, factorial methods, 628, 631 464, 471-472, 548, 614, 633-645, 648, fat (total dietary), 459, 945, 1232-1233, 695, 887, 983-984, 701, 703, 720, 727, 1238-1239 729, 730, 1146-1159, 1164-1167, fatty acids, 456, 1232-1233, 1238-1239 1184-1187, 1190-1195, 1210-1211, fiber, 385-386, 388-389, 391, 394, 1232- 1220-1223, 1234-1235, 1240-1241 1233, 1238-1239 ages 51 years and older, 33-34, 66, 138, glucose metabolism, 288-289 143-144, 289, 296, 303, 358, 371, 388, growth and development, 33, 142, 175, 396, 398, 447, 450-452, 464, 548-549, 177, 181, 182, 459, 654 602, 603, 608, 634, 660, 661, 697, lactation, 293, 389-390, 465-466, 471-472, 704, 711, 723, 725, 734, 736-737, 841, 659 887, 922, 1150-1153, 1158-1163, maintenance requirement, 667 1186-1191, 1194-1199, 1214-1215, nitrogen balance studies, 624-627, 632, 1224-1225, 1236-1237, 1242-1243 664-666 AIs, 26, 33-34, 387-388, 464-466, 470-472 nutrient intakes with added sugars, allergies, 692 1206-1209, 1216-1219 AMDRs, 285, 769, 809, 826, 844, 941 obese or overweight, 181, 216-219, 312, amino acids, 594, 599, 607, 613, 614, 459, 1172-1173, 1178-1183, 1200, 668, 669, 670-680, 686-688, 690-691, 1202 692, 703, 720, 726 physical activity, 176-181, 182, 880, 883, bioavailability of nutrients, 34 902-907, 911-912, 924, 1126-1129, BMI, 35, 36, 121, 124-130, 131, 310, 1138-1145, 1172-1173, 1178-1183 1078-1087, 1098-1103 polyunsaturated fatty acids, 463-464, 465- body composition data, 1078-1103 466, 469-470, 471-472 body fat content, 111, 124-125, 126, 128- pregnancy, 48, 193, 201-202, 292, 389, 130, 131, 1078-1101 465, 471-472, 650-652, 654-655 bone mineral density, 66 protein, 624-629, 631, 632-633, 665, 670, brain utilization of glucose, 285-289 769 carbohydrates, 265, 277, 285-289, 294- RDAs, 285, 292, 293, 631-632, 655, 670, 295, 769, 809, 1234-1237, 1240-1243 673-675 catabolic stress, 594 reference weights and heights, 35, 136- CHD risk, 303, 366, 387-388, 777-784, 137, 176, 178, 659, 670, 983 797-798

1277 I NDEX cholesterol, 548-549 special considerations, 202-213, 220 dental caries, 296 sugar intakes, 323, 789, 792, 1210-1213, diabetes (type 2), 268, 388, 784-785 1220-1225 dietary intakes, 294-295, 602, 695, 697, TEE, 161-164, 183, 203, 1146-1165, 1184- 1234-1237, 1240-1243 1199, 1200-1201 EARs, 33, 34, 46-47, 285-289, 292, 293, vitamin and mineral intakes, 1234-1237, 633, 643-644, 646-649, 668, 670-679 1240-1243 EERs, 121, 124-130, 183-189 weight and height, 143, 183, 184, 220, energy expenditure, 108, 116, 122-123, 1078-1081, 1088-1091 131, 138, 140-141, 143-144 weight maintenance, 773-777 energy intakes, 474, 647, 1234-1237, Adverse effects. See also individual nutrients 1240-1243 defined, 84, 973 energy metabolism, 33, 54, 108, 116, 289 insufficient evidence of, 102-103, 970- extrapolation of data to infants and 971 children, 25, 26-27, 34, 46, 47, 284 nutrient–nutrient interactions, 85, 95 fat (dietary), 459-460, 769, 809, 1234- Aerobics Center Longitudinal Study, 912 1237, 1240-1243 African Americans fiber, 354, 358, 366, 387-389, 396, 398, breast cancer, 379 788, 809, 1234-1237, 1240-1243 energy expenditure, 145-146, 179 glucose metabolism, 285-289, 388, 784- fiber, 379 785 pubertal development, 33 high fat, low carbohydrate diets, 792-810 Age/aging. See also Adolescents; Adults; hyperinsulinemia, 784-785 Children; Infants; Life-stage groups low fat, high carbohydrate diets, 772-792 BMR, 131, 143 malnutrition, 608 carbohydrate–lipid oxidation balance, methodological considerations, 47-48 922 monounsaturated fatty acids, 432 energy expenditure, 117, 143-144, 157, nitrogen balance studies, 275, 287, 618, 158, 159-161, 181, 183 633-643, 661 and energy requirements, 183, 647 nutrient intakes with sugars, 1210-1215, fat absorption, 447, 450-452 1220-1225 glucose metabolism, 289 obese and overweight, 122-123, 792-797, insulin resistance, 62 1184-1199, 1201 physical activity, 143-144, 922, 924 peak bone mass, 33 and protein reserve, 595, 602, 640-641, physical activity, 66, 138, 143-144, 183- 642 184, 186-189, 883, 895-903, 911-912, reporting of dietary intakes, 117 1184-1199 RMR, 143 polyunsaturated fatty acids, 433, 435, sensitivity to nutrient toxicity, 92 464, 470-472, 478 and sugar intakes, 323 protein, 287-288, 595, 602, 605, 608, TEF, 134, 143, 165, 171, 179 611-612, 633-649, 660, 661, 668, 686- weight gain, 143, 167 688, 690-691, 692, 695, 769, 841 Alanine (dispensable), 276, 591, 593, 594, RDAs, 33, 47, 265, 289-290, 292, 293, 596, 597, 604, 605, 606, 696-697, 736, 603, 644-645, 649, 667-669, 679-680 992-993 reference heights and weights, 35, 124, Alaska Natives, 275, 284, 693 125, 126, 128-130, 983-984 Albumin, 304-305, 430, 602, 609, 610 renal function, 34 Alcohol reserve capacity and functioning, 33-34 dietary intakes, 49, 110, 1064-1065 saturated fatty acids, 474, 835, 1234- energy contribution, 109, 771, 1064-1065 1237, 1240-1243 and fatty acid oxidation, 109, 453

1278 INDEX by life stage and gender group, 1064- and brain chemistry, 704-705, 707, 709, 1065 710, 711, 714, 721, 731, 732, 734, 735 oxidation rate, 108-109 branched-chain, 604, 616, 660, 704-711; TEF, 109-110 See also Isoleucine, Leucine, Valine Alcoholics and alcoholism, 110, 704 and cancer, 54, 698-699, 700, 708, 710, Aldosterone, 543 711, 713, 719, 722, 732, 843 Allergic reactions, 295, 396, 397, 399 and carbohydrates, 275, 276, 701, 731, α-Ketoglutarate, 604, 605 732-733 α-Linoleic acid. See also Polyunsaturated carbon metabolism, 605-607 fatty acids, n-3 catabolism, 278, 594, 603-608, 616, 617, AIs, 8-9, 11, 423, 466-472, 834, 944-945 704, 712 AMDRs, 15-16, 770, 834-835 and CHD risk, 726 and CHD, 427, 770, 827, 828, 829 chemistry, 590, 592-593 deficiency, 9, 423, 427, 439-440, 443-445, Chinese restaurant syndrome, 714, 715- 470, 472 716 dietary intakes, 478, 834 composition of proteins, 279, 621, 666, food sources, 478, 771, 834 682, 685-686 function, 423, 427, 435, 445, 466 deficiency, 662 interaction with linoleic acid, 447, 453- deposition rate, 672-675 455, 472, 825 dermal effects, 733-734, 735 and learning behavior, 439, 445 developmental studies, 708-710, 724, 732 metabolism, 434-435, 445-446, 468, 472 diabetes and, 704 parenteral nutrition and, 444 dietary intakes, 692, 696, 697, 700, 701, protective effects, 427, 770 704, 711, 712, 720, 721, 723, 725, sources, 427, 447 727, 729, 730, 731, 734, 736, 992- supplementation, 444 1027 and vision, 439, 440, 468 digestibility, 621 Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer direct amino acid oxidation method, Prevention Study, 483 615-617, 618, 619, 670-671, 676-678 Altitude, and energy expenditure, 149 dose–response assessment, 697, 699-700, Amino acids. See also Protein; individual 703, 711, 712, 717, 719, 720, 723, 725, 726, 728, 729, 730, 731, 733-734, amino acids absorption, 621 736 adaptations in metabolism, 618, 619 EARs, 589, 619, 664-679, 680-681, 688 adverse effects of, 696, 697-698, 701-703, excretion, 604 705-708, 711-712, 713-717, 720, 721- factorial estimate, 614, 666-669 723, 724-726, 727, 729, 730-733, 734- food sources, 48, 712-713, 714 735 free, 596-597, 599, 602, 603, 620, 692, AIs, 662-663 721 alcoholism and, 704 function, 9, 38, 589, 590, 696, 697, 701, animal studies, 671, 696, 697-698, 701- 704-705, 712, 720-721, 725, 729, 731, 702, 703, 705, 707-708, 711-712, 713- 734, 736 714, 720, 721-722, 724, 725-726, 727, and gastrointestinal disturbances, 698, 729, 730-732, 734-735 700, 714, 720, 722, 724, 726, 733 and appetite or eating behavior, 707, genotoxicity, 720 709, 710, 713, 730, 731-732 gluconeogenesis from, 276, 278, 288- and asthma, 716-717 289, 604, 606 and behavior, 697, 701, 713, 714, 721, and growth, 598, 607, 665, 666, 669, 697, 727, 729 701, 707, 710, 713, 719, 720, 721, bioavailability, 685 724, 725, 728 and body fat, 713

1279 I NDEX hazard identification, 696-699, 700, 701- nutritional and metabolic classification, 703, 704-710, 711-717, 718-719, 720, 593-594 721-723, 724-726, 727, 729, 730-733, and obesity, 701, 704, 732 734-735 opthalmologic effects, 711, 714, 720, and herpes infections, 724 722, 729, 734, 735, 736 high-protein diets and, 712 parenteral nutrition and, 699, 705, 714, homeostasis, 595-598 718, 719, 722-723 hormonal effects, 715 and physical exercise, 702, 705-706 human studies, 608-699, 702-703, 705- planning and assessing intakes, 961-963 706, 712, 714-715, 720, 722-723, 724- plasma amino acid response method, 725, 726, 727, 729, 730, 731-733, 735 614-615, 670-671 imbalances in, 707, 708-709, 710, 726 precursors of nonprotein products, 608 and immune function, 697-698, 699 protective effects, 726 indicator amino acid oxidation method, quality of protein source, 661, 662, 684- 617-619, 670-671, 676, 677, 678 690, 721 indicators for estimating requirements, RDAs, 47, 672-675, 679-680, 681, 682 613-619 reproductive effects, 701, 712, 713, 715 individual variability in requirements, research recommendations, 737-738 614, 665-666, 679 risk characterization, 737 insulin sensitivity, 696, 701, 705, 710 scoring, 14, 589, 662, 685, 686-691 intake assessment, 736-737 selection of indicators for estimating interactions with other nutrients, 721- requirements, 613-619 723, 725, 726, 731 and somnolence, 698, 700, 722, 733 by life stage and gender group, 662-682, special considerations, 728 992-1027 and starvation, 693, 704 limiting, 602, 611, 614, 669, 685, 689, supplementation, 695-735 690, 691 synthesis, 275, 701, 712, 717, 723, 729, and lipid profiles, 721, 724 734 liver function and, 704, 705, 721 and taste and smell acuity, 722 losses, 601, 614 teratogenic effects, 708, 728 low-protein diets, 697, 707, 709, 721, trauma and, 596, 605 731-732 24-hour amino acid balance method, maintenance, 666, 667-669, 672-675 616-617, 670-671, 676, 677 and malnutrition, 704 ULs, 695-737 maple syrup urine disease, 704, 706 variance in requirements, 688 metabolic disorders, 697, 700, 704, 705, and weight, 697, 698, 700, 707, 709, 713, 706, 710, 714, 727, 728, 735 721, 724, 730, 731-732, 734 metabolic pathways, 597-598, 600, 617, Amino sugars, 684 660, 697, 701, 704, 705, 717, 719, Ammonia, 56, 375, 377, 603, 604, 605, 684, 724, 726, 728-729, 731 697, 714, 717-718, 719 neurological effects, 696, 699, 701-702, Amylopectin, 267-268, 269, 272 703, 704-705, 706, 711, 714, 715, 717, Amylose, 267, 272 718, 719, 727, 728, 733 Animal studies nitrogen balance studies, 612, 613-614, advantages, 94-95, 97 618, 662, 664-666, 670-671, 676, 677, amino acids, 671, 696, 697-698, 701-702, 678, 688 707-708, 711-712, 713-714, 720, 721- nitrogen metabolism, 278, 603-605, 718, 722, 724, 725-726, 727, 729, 730-732, 720 734-735 nitrogen utilization through nonprotein carbohydrate, 40, 275 pathways, 607-608 cholesterol, 548, 562 colon cancer, 377

1280 INDEX dose-response assessment, 96, 98, 100 carbohydrate, 956-957 extrapolation of data from, 40, 87, 95, cut-point method, 943 97, 98, 100, 101, 492, 562, 1245-1246 EAR and, 938-939, 943-944 fat, 40 energy, 48, 225, 954-956 fiber, 351, 361, 377 fat, 959 hazard identification, 94-95, 96, 696, fiber, 957-958 697-698, 701-702, 707-708, 711-712, of groups, 16-18, 941-945 713-714, 721-722, 724, 725-726, 727, of individuals, 937-941 729, 730-732, 734-735 polyunsaturated fatty acids, 959-960 nitrogen balance studies, 671 probability approach, 942-943, 944 polyunsaturated fatty acids, 444-445, 492 protein, 960-961 pregnant animals, 709, 726 RDA and, 938-939, 944 protein, 40 UL and, 940, 945 relevance of, 39, 40, 94, 96, 703, 705, Asthma, 396, 399, 716-717 711, 727 Atherogenic dyslipidemia, 777 uncertainties in, 100, 1245-1246 Atherogenic lipid profile, 802 Apolipoprotein A-I, 61 Atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype, 777, 782 Apolipoprotein B100, 503 Atherosclerosis, 59, 485-486, 546, 548, 549, Apolipoprotein CH, 429 560, 562, 563, 823-824, 826, 836-837, Apolipoprotein E, 544 840 Apoproteins, 429 Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study, Apoptosis, 55, 833, 837-838 563 Appetite, 383, 707, 709, 710, 713, 730, 731- Athletes, 115. See also Physical activity 732, 795 amino acid supplements, 702, 706 Arabinose, 345 endurance training, 660 Arachidonic acid, 425, 426, 433-434, 435, energy balance, 221-223, 452 438, 439, 440, 442, 443, 444, 446-447, high-carbohydrate diet, 452 453-454, 455-456, 465, 469, 472, 476, high-fat diet, 452 478, 824, 838 lipoprotein profile, 61 Arginase, 605 low fat, high carbohydrate diet, 773 Arginine (dispensable), 591, 593, 594, 597, protein, 660-661 605, 608, 697-700, 709, 712, 717, 724, resistance training, 660 736, 994-995 runners, 61, 773 Arginine glutamate, 714 skeletal health, 66 Arginionsuccinic acid synthetase, 697, 700 Autoimmune diseases, 487 Arizona Wheat-bran Fiber Trial, 374 Arteriosclerosis, 130, 842 B Asians, obese, 352 Asparagine (dispensable), 591, 593, 594, 700 Balance studies. See also Nitrogen balance Aspartame, 695, 702-703, 727 studies Aspartic acid/aspartate (dispensable), 591, cholesterol, 543-544 592, 593, 594, 597, 604, 605, 608, defined, 40 695, 709, 736, 996-997 limitations of, 40-41, 617, 676 Association of Official Analytical Chemists methionine, 677 International, 340, 344 24-hour amino acid method, 616-617 Assessment of nutrient intakes zinc bioavailability, 394 added sugars, 957 Basal energy expenditure (BEE) AI and, 939-940, 944-945 defined, 112 AMDR and, 941, 945 DLW data, 1104-1202 amino acids, 960-963 fat-free mass and, 128, 186 biochemical approach, 944 gender differences, 141, 217

1281 I NDEX and MET rate, 888 defined, 93, 973 obese and overweight individuals, 217 factors affecting, 29-30, 93-94, 271, 281 prediction, 114, 171, 178-179, 186, 205, fat intake and, 424, 785, 788-792 217 fiber consumption and, 29, 94, 348, 351- Schofield equations, 171, 178-179, 186 352, 369, 382, 391, 394-395, 397-398, and weight, 116, 141, 150, 183, 184, 186, 838 206-213, 888 in human milk, 431, 447, 621, 944 Basal metabolic rate (BMR), 25 in infant formula, 26, 31, 45, 431, 940, adaptations, 201 944, 946 adolescents, 178-179 nutrient–nutrient interactions and, 93, aging and, 131, 143 271, 281, 424 altitude and, 149 and risk assessment, 93-94, 98 body composition and size and, 131, 141 from supplements, 29, 93, 94 and carbohydrates, 196 Biomarkers of disease, 41 children, 141, 171, 1114-1121 Bladder cancer, 708, 710 climate and, 148 Bleeding time, 492-493 defined, 112 Blood pressure. See also Hypertension and energy expenditure, 112-114, 115, amino acids and, 735 131, 141, 164-165, 171, 178-179, 185, fiber and, 60 188-190, 195 physical activity and, 60 and energy requirement, 164-165, 171, polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 59, 829 178-179, 185, 188-190, 195-196 trans fatty acids and, 504 ethnic differences, 146 weight and, 204 FFM and, 139 Body composition and size. See also Body fat gender differences, 141 content; Fat-free mass; Fat mass; infants, 164-165, 1106-1114 Obesity and overweight lactation, 195-196 adolescents, 142, 178, 181 measurement, 165, 171, 185, 188 adults, 1078-1103 menstrual cycle and, 140, 141 and BMR, 131, 141 pregnancy, 185, 188-191, 291 CLA and, 836-837 protein balance and, 598 and energy expenditure, 65, 112, 117, sedentary individuals, 115 131-135, 138, 139, 141 Basal requirement, 24 gender differences, 128, 142, 1078-1103 Beans. See Legumes genetic factors, 144, 146 Behavior. See also Eating behavior NHANES III data, 124, 125, 130, 982, amino acid intake and, 697, 701, 713, 1078-1103 714, 721, 727, 729 pregnancy and, 188, 191-192 breastfed infants, 621 protein deposition, 626-629, 644 learning, 439, 445, 446, 447, 697, 713, 729 and reporting of dietary intakes, 117 polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 439, research recommendations, 225, 240 445, 446, 447 and sensitivity to nutrients, 92 sugar intake and, 295-296, 323 and TEE, 132 Bengal gram, 366-367 undernutrition and, 220 β3-Adrenergic receptor gene, 145 Body fat content. See also Body Mass Index; β-Glucans (dietary or functional fiber), 345, Fat mass 355-356 adults, 111, 124-125, 126, 128-130, 131, β-Hydroxybutyrate, 285, 430 1078-1101 Bioavailability of nutrients amino acid intake and, 713 age/aging and, 447, 450-452 bioimpedance data, 124 amino acids, 685 BMI and, 121, 124-125, 126, 128-130, balance studies and, 394 1080-1087, 1098-1101

1282 INDEX and cancer, 379 and triceps skinfold, 1080-1081, 1086- gender differences, 1078-1101 1087, 1100-1101 height and, 125, 128-130, 1078-1081, waist circumference used with, 124-125, 1088-1089 127, 1080-1081, 1084-1085, 1098- infants, 142, 621 1099, 1102-1103 obesity, 126 and weight, 1080-1081 physical activity and, 57, 61, 139, 180, Body weight. See Weight 181 Bogalusa Heart Study, 307, 310, 314-315, protein intake and, 843 792-793, 815 reserves, 111, 220 Bone mineral density, 66, 180, 276, 928 and triceps skinfold, 125, 128, 1080- Brain 1081, 1086-1087, 1092-1093, 1100- amino acids, 704-705, 707, 709, 710, 711, 1101 714, 721, 724, 731, 732, 734, 735 and waist circumference, 1084-1085, carbohydrate utilization, 38, 265, 273, 1094-1099 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 284, 285-289, and weight, 1090-1091 430 Body Mass Index (BMI) chemistry, 704-705, 707, 709, 710, 711, adults, 35, 36, 121, 124-130, 131, 310, 714, 721, 731, 732, 734, 735 1078-1087, 1098-1103 cholesterol synthesis by infants, 545, 548 and body fat content, 121, 124-125, 126, glucose metabolism, 38, 265, 273, 276, 128-130, 1080-1087, 1098-1101 277, 279-280, 285-289 and cancer, 238-239 macronutrients needed by, 771 and CHD, 124, 232-233 pituitary adenomas, 396 children, 35, 36, 65, 130-131, 216, 814, polyunsaturated fatty acid deficiency 1114-1121 and, 444-445, 466, 468 and chronic disease, 224, 226-239, Bran, 350, 353, 355, 356, 359, 367, 368, 371, 303 372, 378, 394, 395, 838 cutoffs, 121, 126 Breast cancer defined, 121 arginine and, 698-699, 700 and diabetes type 2, 124, 226-229 BMI and, 238-239 fat intake and, 814 case-control studies, 54, 378 fiber consumption and, 352, 379, 383, cholesterol intake and, 568, 574-575 384 conjugated linoleic acid and, 837, 838 gender differences, 125-129, 1078-1087, cross-cultural studies, 54, 377-378 1098-1103 epidemiological studies, 54 glycemic index and, 313 fat intake and, 54, 55, 486, 512-513, 808, healthy, 121, 124, 126 843 and height, 1080-1081 fiber intake and, 56, 377-380 as indicator of energy requirement, 121, intervention studies, 378-379 124-131 monounsaturated fatty acid intake and, infants, 1106-1114 819 methodological issues, 121, 124-125 physical activity and, 57 and mortality, 484 polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 825, 833 obesity, 126, 204, 216, 310, 313 prospective studies, 378 PAL and, 220, 223, 814, 911 protein intake and, 843-844 previous median vs. new median, 35 sugar intake and, 319-320 protein intake and, 843 Breastfeeding. See also Human milk; Infants; reference heights and weights and, 35, Lactation 36, 124, 125, 126, 127-130 and energy expenditure, 165 saturated fatty acid intake and, 484 recommendations, 31, 45, 171, 281, 662 sugar intake and, 65, 310, 313, 316-319 Butyrate, 56, 348, 349, 361, 371, 375

1283 I NDEX C adverse effects of overconsumption, 295- 323 Calcium, 281, 391, 394, 431, 592, 789, 790- aging and, 289 793, 811, 812, 813, 835, 838, 840, AIs, 32, 280-283, 944 841, 1204-1211, 1214-1221, 1224- AMDRs, 15, 285, 769, 785, 809, 816 1225, 1228-1243 amino acids and, 275, 276, 701, 731, Canada 732-733 dietary intake data, 295, 473, 479, 481, animal derived, 342; See also Fiber 692, 1066-1075 and BMR, 196 fiber definitions and guidelines, 340, 349 brain utilization, 38, 265, 273, 276, 277, Food Guide to Healthy Eating, 771 278, 279, 280, 284, 285-289, 430 human milk intake and composition, Canada, 295, 1068-1069 172-173 and cancer, 55, 319-321 physical activity recommendations, 883 and CHD, 59, 303, 797, 798-799, 800-801 Canadian National Institute of Nutrition, 979 classification, 265-266 Canadian Paediatric Society, 31, 32, 45, 46 clinical effects of inadequate intakes, Canadian Society of Exercise Physiology, 883 275-276 Cancer. See also individual histological sites compared to other nutrient intakes, amino acids and, 54, 698-699, 700, 708, 1226-1243 710, 711, 713, 719, 722, 732, 843 and dental caries, 296-297 BMI and, 238-239 and diabetes type 2, 63, 302, 303, 306- body fat and, 379 307, 785 carbohydrate intake and, 55, 319-321 dietary intakes, 46, 65, 265, 294-295, 770- cholesterol and, 54, 568, 570-579 771, 943, 944, 1032-1035, 1068-1069, CLA and, 427 1226-1243 energy intake and, 54 digestion, 272 evidence about dietary factors, 53 EARs, 4, 6, 277-280, 284, 285-289, 290- fat intake and, 54-55, 375, 376, 484, 486, 293 512-513, 808 energy contribution, 280, 281, 294-295, fiber intake and, 54, 55-56, 319, 321, 339, 770-771, 813, 1034-1035, 1226-1243 373-380, 396, 398 epidemiological studies, 783, 785, 800- glycemic index of foods and, 310-311, 801 319, 321 fatty acid synthesis, 275, 277, 433 high fat, low carbohydrate diets and, 808 food sources, 265, 280-281, 294, 771 hormone-related, 56 function, 4, 38, 265 monounsaturated fatty acids and, 55, and growth, 280-281, 922-923 486, 819 hazard identification, 295-321 physical activity and, 56-57 high-carbohydrate diets, 295, 297, 438, polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 54, 824- 769, 772-792, 795 825, 833-834 in human milk, 281-283, 292 protective effect of nutrients, 54, 55, 819, intake assessment, 323 833-834 intervention studies, 785, 786-787 protein intake and, 54, 843-844 intestinal absorption, 60, 272-273, 281, sugars and, 54, 55, 319-320, 321, 323 323, 369 Caproic acid, 425 by life stage and gender group, 6, 280- Caprylic acid, 425 293, 988-991, 1032-1033, 1068-1069 Carbohydrate, dietary. See also Glucose; and lipid oxidation, 917-923 Glycemic index; High fat, low and lipid profile, 275, 277, 278-279, 297- carbohydrate diets; Low fat, high 303, 781, 782-784 carbohydrate diets; Starch; Sugar; low carbohydrate diets, 293, 430, 784, individual life-stage groups 792-810 adaptation to starvation, 277-278, 293

1284 INDEX malabsorption, 397 Children, ages 1 through 8 years. See also and mental health, 276 Life-stage groups; Toddlers metabolism, 38, 64, 190, 196, 273-275, added sugars, 294, 812-813, 816, 1204- 424 1205 and micronutrient inadequacies or AIs, 26-27, 32, 34, 385-386, 463, 469-470 excesses, 812, 816, 1226-1243 allergies, 692 and obesity, 65, 275, 307, 310-319, 769 AMDRs, 769, 816, 826, 844, 941, 945 and physical activity, 64, 318-319, 452, amino acids, 25, 589, 614, 619, 664-670, 917-923 672-673, 686, 687, 689, 702-703, 720 planning intakes, 956-957, 964 aortic fatty streaks, 815 RDAs, 4, 6, 47, 265, 285, 289-290, 292, aspartame, 702-703 293 BMI, 35, 36, 65, 130-131, 216, 310, 814, research recommendations, 323-324 1114-1127, 1128-1139 special considerations, 283, 293 BMR, 141, 171, 1114-1121 TEF, 110, 114 bone mass, 66 total, 63, 956-957 brain development, 284, 286-287, 288- Carbohydrate-free diet, 277-278, 281, 287- 289, 608-609 288, 289, 293, 701 carbohydrates, 65, 265, 284-285, 294, Carbon metabolism, 605-607 295, 769, 813, 1226-1231 Carboxymethylcellulose gum, 367, 382 chronic disease risk in adulthood, 130, Carboxypeptidases, 599 814-815 Cardiac arrhythmias, 59, 60, 427, 829, 927 congenital defects of amino acids, 619, Cardiovascular disease. See also 697 Atherosclerosis; Coronary artery constipation, 370-371, 385-386 disease; Coronary heart disease dental caries, 296 cholesterol intake, 546, 548, 549, 560, derivation of DRIs, 32 562 diarrhea, 438 lipid profile and, 302, 562-569 EARs, 25, 32, 34, 46-47, 284, 631, 664- monounsaturated fatty acids and, 485- 669, 672-673 486 EERs, 107, 130-131, 168-170, 171, 174- physical exercise and, 60-61, 927 177, 216-219 Carnitine, 430, 607, 608, 723, 724 energy expenditure, 116, 134-135, 138, Carnosine, 721 141, 146, 148, 161-164, 174, 1114-1127 Carotenoids, 424, 785, 792-793 energy intakes, 54, 65, 170, 386, 473, Catecholamines, 608, 735 474, 814, 1226-1231 Caucasians epilepsy, 284 carbohydrate-free diet, 275 extrapolation of data from adults to, 25, energy expenditure, 145-146 26-27, 34, 47, 284 pubertal development, 33 factorial method, 628, 631, 666-669 Cell growth and proliferation, 55 fat (dietary), 437, 438, 441, 459, 769, Cell surface adhesion proteins, 490 810, 814-816, 945, 1226-1227, 1230- Cellulose (dietary or functional fiber), 344- 1231 345, 348, 350, 351, 356, 358, 359, fatty acids, 456, 1228-1231 367, 371, 372, 382, 390, 394 fiber, 370-371, 385-386, 1226-1227, 1230- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1231 130, 216 glucose metabolism, 286-287, 288-289 Cereals and cereal fiber, 55-56, 359, 363, growth, 32, 47, 134, 142, 151, 167-168, 364, 369, 370, 373, 377, 378, 380-381, 174, 175, 221, 222, 437, 441, 456, 387, 388, 394, 399, 788 459, 609, 611, 810-811, 839-840, 922- Chicago Western Electric Study, 562, 826- 923 827, 828 high fat, low carbohydrate diets, 814-816

1285 I NDEX hyperactivity, 295 Chinese restaurant syndrome, 715-716 hypercholesterolemia, 811 Chitin and chitosan (functional fiber), 345, lipid profiles, 811, 814-815 351-352, 384, 395-396 low fat, high carbohydrate diets, 438, Chloride, 725 810-814 Cholesterol (dietary) malnutrition, 167, 608-609, 839 absorption, 4, 60, 359, 369, 543-544, 561 methodological considerations, 25, 47-48 animal studies, 548, 562 micronutrient intakes with adverse effects of, 549, 558-573 macronutrients, 220, 811-814, 816, balance studies, 543-544 1204-1205, 1228-1231 and cancer, 54, 568, 570-579 nitrogen balance studies, 624-627, 664- and cardiovascular disease, 546, 548, 666 549, 560, 562 of obese parents, 133 and CHD, 58, 542, 548, 562-569, 572, obesity or overweight, 65, 130, 134, 140, 573, 836 153, 216-219, 307, 310, 312-313, 459, and diabetes type 2, 563 811, 814, 923, 1168-1179, 1200, 1202 dietary intake, 549, 550-559, 563, 960, PAL, 166, 1122-1127, 1128-1139, 1168- 1058-1059 1179 dose–response assessment, 568-573 phenylketonuria, 619 epidemiological studies, 562-569 physical activity, 66, 138, 140, 146, 171, food sources, 48, 544, 545, 546-549, 836 174, 880, 883, 902-907, 911-912, 924 function, 4, 542, 543 polyunsaturated fatty acids, 438, 444, hazard identification, 549-568 463, 469-470 high cholesterol diets, 545, 836 protein, 25, 284, 608-609, 611, 624-629, by life stage and gender group, 546-549, 631, 667-669, 686, 687, 689, 692, 769, 1058-1059 811, 839-840 and lipid profile, 544-545, 548-562, 563, RDAs, 25, 34, 47, 265, 285, 631-632, 670, 568-569, 573 672-673 and lipoprotein metabolism, 544-545, saturated fatty acids, 474, 816, 835, 1226- 548-562, 563, 568-569, 573 1227, 1230-1231 low cholesterol diets, 546, 561, 835 special considerations, 216-219 metabolism, 4, 429, 544-546, 562 stunting, 151, 217, 220, 221, 222, 811, oxidation products, 545-546 840 reducing intakes, 836 sugar intakes, 307-310, 813-814, 1204- research recommendations, 574-575, 1205 578 TEE, 134-135, 148, 161-164, 166, 174, risk characterization, 573-574 217, 1114-1127, 1128-1139, 1168- Cholesterol (plasma/serum total), 572. See 1179, 1200, 1202 also HDL cholesterol; LDL TEF, 134, 171 cholesterol toddlers (1 to 3 years), 32, 35, 130, 132- amino acids and, 721, 724 135, 166, 167-170, 284, 285, 386, 463, and cardiovascular disease, 546, 548, 470, 626-628, 631, 632, 664, 672, 686, 549, 560, 562 687, 689, 769, 816, 1106-1123, 1128- and CHD, 58, 542, 548, 562-569, 572, 1129, 1226-1231 573, 836 trans fatty acids, 456 cholesterol intakes and, 550-561 UL derivation for, 34 fat intake and, 58, 544, 550-559, 560, 809 underweight, 130, 811 fiber intake and, 4, 59-60, 339, 351, 352, urea synthesis defects, 699 354, 355, 356, 357, 358-359, 360, 361, wasting, 840 365-368 weight control, 216-219 genetic factors, 58, 544, 545, 546, 561-562 weights and heights, reference, 34, 35, glycemic index and, 302 130, 132-137, 176, 178, 983

1286 INDEX interindividual variation, 560-561, 562 Conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) monounsaturated fatty acids and, 58, and body composition, 836-837 486, 817-818 and cancer, 427, 836-838 polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 58, 59, dietary intakes, 481 560 evidence considered for estimating protein intake and, 60, 840 requirements, 447 saturated fatty acid intake and, 481, 482, food sources, 480-481 560, 561, 809 function, 428-429 trans fatty acids and, 58, 494-495 metabolism, 428 Chronic diseases. See also individual diseases protective effects, 428, 836-838 BMI and, 224, 226-239, 303 supplements, 837 body weight gain and, 224, 226-239 Constipation, 353, 355, 358, 370-371, 372, fat-related risks, 437-438, 460 379, 385-386, 388 knowledge gaps on intake relationships Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by to, 771-772, 970 Individuals physical activity and, 912-917 adjustments to data, 49-50 preventive effects of macronutrients, See dietary intake data, 294-295, 314-315, Protective effects of macronutrients 391, 457, 461, 473, 474, 477, 478, protein intakes and, 694 480, 549, 695, 788, 790-791, 799, 943, Chylomicrons, 429, 430, 432, 543, 544 1028-1065, 1226-1243 Citric acid cycle, 430, 606 survey design, 49 Citrulline, 604, 607, 717 Copper, 721, 723, 790-791 Climate, and energy expenditure and Cori cycle, 287, 607 requirements, 146-149 Corn syrups, 266, 294 Collagen, 593, 595, 729 Coronary artery disease, 60-61, 434, 563, Colon cancer 815, 842-843. See also Coronary heart ammonia and, 375, 377 disease animal studies, 377 Coronary heart disease BMI and, 238-239 amino acids and, 726 cholesterol intake and, 568, 576-577 aortic fatty streaks during childhood colonic adenomas, 56, 238-239, 321, 371, and, 815 374, 375-376, 398 BMI and, 124, 232-233 epidemiological studies, 373-374 carbohydrate intake and, 59, 303, 797, fat intake and, 54, 55, 371, 486, 514-515, 798-799, 800-801 808 cholesterol intake and, 58, 542, 548, 562- fiber intake and, 55-56, 321, 348, 373- 569, 572, 573, 836 377 epidemiological studies, 362-365, 562- glycemic index of diet and, 310-311, 321 569, 797-798, 800-801, 817, 820-821, intervention studies, 374-375, 376-377 826-828 markers for, 374 fat intake and, 58-59, 437-438, 460, 769, monounsaturated fatty acids and, 819 797-799, 802 physical activity and, 56-57 fiber intake and, 59-60, 322, 339, 356, polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 833 362-368, 369, 387-388, 389, 563 protein intake and, 843 gender and, 363, 364 risk factors, 373 genetic factors, 57 Colon health, fiber and, 55-56, 339, 348, glycemic index and, 303, 308-311 358, 370-377, 385-386, 388 high fat, low carbohydrate diets, 797- Colonic adenomas, 56, 238-239, 321, 371, 802, 814-815 374, 375-376, 398 homocysteine and, 726 Colorectal cancer, 54, 55, 321, 486, 514-515, intervention studies, 365-368, 798-799, 808, 833, 837 817-818, 821, 828-831

1287 I NDEX lipid profile and, 57, 60, 356, 481-484, Department of Health Survey of British 542, 548-549, 562-569, 573, 798-799, School Children, 307-310, 314-317, 815 792-793 low fat, high carbohydrate diets and, Depletion-repletion studies, 40-41 437-438, 772, 777-784 Dermal effects of amino acids, 733-734, 735 monounsaturated fatty acids and, 58-59, Dermatitis, 5, 442, 444, 460 817-818 Developmental effects. See also Growth and obesity and overweight and, 130, 815 development physical activity and, 60, 797, 886-887, 924 of amino acids, 708-710, 724, 732 polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 59, 62- of functional fiber, 396 63, 427, 434, 455, 492, 770, 798-799, of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid 820-821, 826-831 deficiency, 444-447 pregnancy, 389 Dextrose, 295 protein and, 60 Diabetes mellitus, type 1, 268, 275 prothrombotic markers, 799, 802 Diabetes mellitus, type 2 randomized controlled clinical trials, adults, 268, 388, 784-785 828-829 and amino acids, 704 risk factors, 57, 563 BMI and, 124, 226-229 saturated fatty acids and, 422, 481-484, carbohydrate intake and, 63, 302, 303, 797, 798, 799 306-307, 785 sugar intake and, 303, 800-801 cholesterol intake and, 563 trans fatty acids and, 58, 423, 504, 510-513 epidemiological studies, 380-381, 785, tricylglycerol and, 57-58, 59, 437 803, 832 Cortisol, 189, 715 fat intake and, 62-63, 437-438, 460, 802- Creatine/creatinine, 603, 604, 607, 608, 808 609, 620, 647, 684, 697, 842 fiber intake and, 63, 352-353, 354, 355, Critical endpoints, 93, 98, 99, 101, 102 359-360, 380-382, 388 Cysteine/cystine (dispensable), 589, 591, gender differences, 380, 381 592, 593, 594, 601, 607, 608, 614, genetic factors, 62 663-665, 666, 668, 672-675, 677, 678, glycemic index and, 63, 302, 304-307, 679-682, 683, 685, 686, 687, 689, 711- 308-309, 322 712, 736, 998-999 glycemic response, 268, 271 HDL cholesterol and, 308-309 high fat, low carbohydrate diets and, D 802-808 insulin resistance, 63, 275, 303, 306-307, Data and database issues 308-312, 784-785 adjustments to survey data, 49-50 intervention studies, 381-382, 785, 786- critical data set, 98 787, 806-807, 832-833 dietary intake data, 49-50, 117 lipid profile, 308-309 for dose–response assessment, 98, 101-103 low fat, high carbohydrate diets and, quality and completeness of data, 2-3, 437-438, 772, 784-785 40, 43, 44, 46, 85, 86, 90, 97, 99, 180, monounsaturated fatty acids and, 819 479, 969 obesity and overweight and, 802, 803 research needs, 969-971 physical activity and, 63-64 selection for dose-response assessment, polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 494, 90, 98 821, 832-833 statistical analysis, 612-613 protective effects of nutrients, 380-381 uncertainties in, 86, 99, 1246 risk factors, 57, 62, 563 validation of dietary intake data with, 117 saturated fatty acids and, 484-485 Dehydration, 926-927 sugar intakes and, 303 Dental caries, 61-62, 296-297, 323

1288 INDEX Diabetes Prevention Program Research criteria for, 3, 5-13, 21-22, 44 Group, 806-807 defined, 2, 3, 21-22 Dialysis, 722 extrapolation from other age groups, 26- Diammonium citrate, 594 27, 31-32, 34, 101, 982-984 Diarrhea, 397, 398, 438, 693 framework, 36, 979-981 Diet and Reinfarction Trial (DART), 828 group applications, 16-18, 23-24, 941- Dietary and Nutritional Survey of British 945, 947-949 Adults, 314-315, 316-317, 318-319 individual applications, 26, 30, 937-941, Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension 946 diet, 798 origin, 978-979 Dietary intakes. See also individual nutrients parameters for, 29-36; See also Life-stage adjustment of data, 49-50, 103, 938, 941- groups; Reference weights and 942, 943 heights assessment of, 88-89, 90, 118, 323, 436 planning applications, 24, 936, 946-949 and bioavailability, 940, 944 rationale for, 1, 978-979 breast-fed infants, 45, 624, 939-940 sources of data, 2-3, 36, 43-44; See also Canadian, 1066-1075 Methodological considerations and chronic disease, 970 uses, 16-18, 28, 936-966 corroboration of, 437 WHO/FAO/WHO approach compared, day-to-day variations in, 49, 938, 940, 24 941-942, 943 Direct amino acid oxidation (DAAO) energy density of foods and, 794-796 method, 615-617, 618, 619, 670-671, food composition databases, 48, 49-50, 676-678 941 Disaccharides, 265, 266, 272, 281, 342 food frequency questionnaires, 939 Diverticular disease, 371-372, 388 food quotient from, 120 Docosahexanoic acid (DHA), 9, 55, 59, 62, form of, 96 n.2 427, 435, 439, 440, 443, 444-446, 447, gender differences, 265, 294, 473, 474, 453, 455-456, 466, 468, 469, 470, 471, 692, 988-1065 472, 478, 487, 492, 494, 770, 826, menu samples, 392-393 828, 829, 833, 1056-1057 methodological issues, 42, 48, 49-50, Docosapentaenoic acid, 426, 427, 1054-1055 110, 116, 117-118, 307, 312, 313, 322, Dose–response assessment. See also 563, 624, 643, 936-937 individual nutrients self-reported, 42, 48-49, 64, 117-118, 307, animal studies, 96, 98, 100 479, 938 components and process, 87-88, 95 sources of data, 49-50 critical endpoint, 93, 98, 99, 101, 102 underreporting, 42, 49, 110, 117-118, data quality and completeness, 98, 101- 313, 643, 794, 936-937, 944, 956 103 using data from, 937-939, 940 data selection, 90, 98 Dietary Intervention Study in Children defined, 974 (DISC), 812, 814 derivation of UL, 90, 98, 101 Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) human studies, 98 applicable population, 30, 202 LOAEL/NOAEL identification, 90, 98, assessment applications, 16-18, 23-24, 99-100, 102 936, 937-941 special considerations, 100, 101 categories, 2, 22-28; See also Acceptable uncertainty assessment, 98, 100-101 Macronutrient Distribution Ranges; Doubly labeled water method Adequate Intakes; Estimated Average advantages, 120 Requirements; Recommended BEE predictions, 1104-1202 Dietary Allowance; Tolerable Upper data analysis and assumptions for Intake Levels equations, 43, 154-157, 183

1289 I NDEX description of database, 151-157 physical activity and, 4, 5, 57, 65, 116, EAR determination, 47 138, 143, 157-161, 184, 221-223, 452, factorial method compared, 119 884-912 inclusion/exclusion criteria, 152-154 research recommendations, 225, 240, methodological issues, 120-121, 152, 198 323-324 normative database, 151-153, 154-155 and weight, 65, 150, 212, 214, 220 overweight and obese database, 153, Energy density of foods and, 64, 794-796 156-157 Energy expenditure. See also Basal energy prediction equations, 154-157 expenditure; Resting energy pregnant women, 193, 196-197, 290 expenditure; Total energy representativeness of sample, 152 expenditure; individual life-stage statistical analysis of studies, 43 groups TEE predictions, 116, 117, 119-121, 122- age/aging and, 117, 143-144, 157, 158, 123, 138-139, 141, 151-157, 166, 174, 159-161, 181, 183 193, 198-199, 201, 291, 1104-1202 altitude and, 149 validation of dietary intake data with, BMR and, 112-114, 115, 131, 141, 164- 117 165, 171, 178-179, 185, 188-190, 195 whole-body calorimetry results body composition and size and, 65, 112, compared, 120, 122-123 131-135, 138, 139, 141 Duodenal ulcer, 370, 372 climate and, 147-148 environment and, 147-148, 149 ethnicity and, 145-146 E factors affecting, 131-151, 165 gender differences, 108, 114, 132, 140- Eating behavior 141, 143, 148, 157, 158, 217 amino acid supplementation and, 707, genetics and, 144-145 709, 710, 713, 730, 731-732 and growth rate, 134, 164, 190-192 appetite sensations and, 795 height and, 157, 159-161 cognitive factors, 796 lactation and, 116, 198-199 energy density of foods and, 794-796 measurement of, 118-121, 122-123, 140 palatability of foods and, 795, 809 obesity and overweight and, 111, 122- Eating disorders, 928 123, 133-135, 138, 140, 209, 212, 216- Eicosanoic acid, 426 219 Eicosanoids of physical activity (EEPA), 115-116, 117, metabolism, 9, 55, 423, 434, 454, 825, 133, 138-140, 141, 143-144, 145-146, 833, 838 147, 183, 190, 209, 212, 884-913 proinflammatory, 59 postexercise, 139 Eicosapentanoic acid (EPA), 9, 55, 59, 62, pregnancy, 189, 193 427, 435, 439, 443, 453-454, 460, 466, research recommendations, 225, 240 469, 470, 471-472, 478, 487, 492-493, RMR and, 112, 131, 132, 141, 148, 165 494, 770, 826, 828, 829, 832, 833, TEF and, 114, 115, 116, 150, 165, 171 1052-1053 and thermoregulation, 114 Eicosatrienoic acid, 439, 440, 442 weight and, 132, 135, 141, 150, 159-161, Elaidic acid, 427, 436, 495 183, 184, 186, 206-213, 215, 889, 891- Endometrial cancer, 56, 57, 379, 844 895, 951 Endorphins, 916 Energy intake. See also Acceptable Endothelial function, 59 Macronutrient Distribution Ranges; Energy balance, 107, 111-112, 164 individual macronutrients and life-stage adaptation, 149-151, 201, 220, 223-224, groups 452 adaptation to, 149-151, 201, 220, 223- negative, 213-215 224, 452

1290 INDEX adverse effects of overconsumption, 54, FAO/WHO/UNU criteria, 111-112 57, 110, 223-239 genetics and, 144 alcohol contribution, 109, 771, 1064- for growth, 45, 116-117, 142, 166-168, 1065 174, 177, 181, 190-192, 441 assessment, 48, 225, 954-956 measurement, 160-161 Canada, 1066-1075 nutrient requirements compared, 110- and cancer, 54 111 energy density of foods and, 64, 794-796 obesity and overweight and, 110, 132- environment and, 150 133, 135, 138, 202-213, 216-219 FAO/WHO/UNU recommendations, physical activity and, 38, 138-140, 157- 170 161, 166, 171, 174, 175, 176-181, 182, and glycemic index of foods, 269, 313, 183-184, 190, 197-198 320, 322 pregnancy, 290 for groups, 952-954, 955-956 research recommendations, 225 hazard identification, 223-224 restoration of normal weight, 220-221 indicators of adequacy or inadequacy, special considerations, 202-223 110-111 TEF and, 165, 171, 190, 196-197 of individuals, 949-952, 955 thermoregulation and, 165-166 interrelationships of nutrients, 39, 103, total, 200-201 770-771, 964 weight and, 112, 183, 184, 220 intra-individual variability, 111 Environment by life stage and gender group, 1028- altitude, 149 1031, 1034-1035, 1040-1041, 1062- climate, 146-149 1067, 1072-1075 and energy expenditure and and obesity, 54, 65, 111, 307, 310, 312, requirements, 146-149 313, 322, 794 Eosinophilia-myalgia syndrome (EMS), 733 planning, 949-954, 963 Eosinophilic fasciitis, 733, 734 research recommendations, 225 Epidemiological studies. See also restricted, 54 Observational studies sugar contribution, 65, 118, 273, 307, analytic studies, 41, 42 310, 313, 314-315, 770 breast cancer, 54 total, 1034-1035 carbohydrates, 783, 785, 800-801 underreporting, 42, 49, 117-118, 643, CHD, 362-365, 562-569, 797-798, 800- 794, 956 801, 817, 820-821, 826-828 and weight, 223-224, 793-794, 951-952 cholesterol, 562-569 yields from substrates, 108-110 colon cancer, 373-374 Energy metabolism, 289 diabetes risk, 380-381, 785, 803, 832 Energy mobilization from tissues, 199-200 fiber and disease prevention, 343-344, Energy requirements. See also Estimated 362-365, 368, 373-374, 380-381, 382- Energy Requirements 383 accommodation, 151 glucose metabolism, 380-381 adaptation, 150 hazard identification, 95, 96 age/aging and, 183, 647 high fat, low carbohydrate diets, 792- athletes, 221-223 794, 797-798, 803 BMI and, 121, 124-131 hyperlipidemia prevention, 362-365 BMR and, 164-165, 171, 178-179, 185, hypertension prevention, 362-365 188-190, 195-196 insulin sensitivity, 380-381 brain, 278 limitations, 41, 42, 95, 322 climate and, 146-147, 149 low fat, high carbohydrate diets, 783, 785 environment and, 146-147 methodological issues, 40, 41-42, 322, 569 factors affecting, 131-151 monounsaturated fatty acids, 817

1291 I NDEX obesity risk, 792-794, 796-797 for reference person, 952-953 physical activity, 912-917 special considerations, 30, 202-223 polyunsaturated fatty acids, 820-821, 826- TEE and, 149-150, 166, 168-169, 174, 828, 832 176, 181, 183, 188, 193, 200-201, 202, satiety and weight maintenance, 382-383 208 sugar and chronic disease, 800-801 uses, 951, 952-953 trans fatty acids, 510-515 Estrogen, 56, 378-380, 543, 921 Esophageal cancer, 844 Ethanolamine phosphoglycerides, 435 Estimated Average Requirements (EARs). Ethnicity. See Race/ethnicity; individual See also individual nutrients and life- ethnic groups EURAMIC study, 827 stage groups coefficient of variation, 24-25 European Center Prevention Organization cut-point method, 943, 952 Study, 398 data quality and completeness, 969 Excretion. See also individual nutrients defined, 3, 22-23 Explorers, high-protein diets, 693 derivation of, 28, 34, 47, 631 Exposure evidence considered for, 46-47, 277-280, acceptable or tolerable, 86-87 284, 285-293, 646-648, 656-659, 664- assessment, 88-89, 90 669 duration of, 96, 99 extrapolation on body-weight basis, 34, route of, 96, 98, 713 44, 45, 47 factorial method, 631 F indicators of adequacy, 6, 28, 110 method used to set, 23, 46-47, 624-629, Factor VII activity, 369, 799 635, 637-639, 666-669, 681-682, 981- Factorial approach, 25, 118-119 982 amino acids, 614, 666-669 prevalence of intakes below, 789 children, 628, 631, 666-669 and RDA, 23, 24 DLW method compared, 119 reported energy intakes and, 117-118 PAL evaluation, 118, 899-902 standard deviation, 24-25, 629 protein, 610-611 uses, 23-24, 688, 936, 938-939, 943-944, TEE, 116 947-948 Fat (dietary), total. See also Fatty acids; High Estimated Energy Requirements (EERs). See fat; Lipids and lipid metabolism; Low also Energy requirements; individual fat; Phospholipids; Triacylglycerol or life-stage groups triacylglyceride averaging for group members, 953-954 absorption, 4, 60, 339, 351-352, 369, 375, criteria for, 5 429, 442, 447, 450-452 defined, 3, 4, 22, 107, 202 adaptation to, 452 derivation of, 107, 116-117, 168-170, 174- adverse effects of, 58, 481 177, 181-182, 184-185, 193-197, 201- AIs, 4, 9, 32, 456-457 203 and alcohol metabolism, 453 evidence considered in determining, AMDRs, 15, 422, 423, 440, 481, 769, 785, 116, 164-168, 171-174, 177-181, 183- 809, 816, 945 184, 185, 188-193, 195-201 animal studies, 40 gender differences, 169-170, 176-179, assessment of intakes, 959 185, 202-203 balance, 441, 452 indicator selection for, 117-131 and bioavailability of vitamins, 424, 785, by life stage and gender group, 5, 164- 788-792 223 and BMI, 814 menu samples, 392-393 and cancer, 54-55, 371, 375, 376, 484, methodological issues, 202-203 486, 512-515, 808

1292 INDEX carbohydrate ratio, 437 saturated fat intake and, 58, 799 and CHD, 58-59, 437-438, 460, 769, 797- special considerations, 457 799, 802 stores, 595; See also Body fat and chronic disease risk, 437-438, 460 TEF, 114 and diabetes type 2, 62-63, 437-438, 460, and weight, 441, 452, 773-776, 809 802-808 Fat-free mass dietary intakes, 46, 49, 64, 118, 457, 473, energy expenditure and, 112, 113, 128, 959, 1038-1041, 1070-1071, 1226-1227 131, 186, 212 energy contribution, 64, 109, 424, 430, height and, 125, 128-130 437, 441, 473, 769, 771, 814, 1040- measurement, 121 1041, 1070-1071, 1226-1227 and metabolic rate, 131, 139 evidence considered for estimating physical activity and, 139, 923 requirements, 440-441 and protein status, 609 excretion, 431, 447 puberty and, 142 factors affecting requirements, 447, 450- Fat mass, 121, 125, 128-130, 142, 814, 923 452 Fat-soluble vitamins, 94 fiber and, 4, 351-352, 367, 369, 375, 376, Fatigue, 706, 733, 920 808 Fatty acids. See also Fat, total; food sources, 48, 54, 280, 424, 448-451, Monounsaturated fatty acids; 457, 473 Polyunsaturated fatty acids; Saturated function, 4, 38, 424-425 fatty acids, n-3; Trans fatty acids gastric emptying, 438 alcohol consumption and, 453 gender differences, 473 from carbohydrates, 275, 277, 433 genetic factors, 452 categories, 424 and glucose intolerance, 802-808 dietary intakes, 1228-1243 and glycemic index of foods, 269 energy contribution, 349, 1228-1243 glycerol metabolism, 289, 430, 784-785, from fiber, 348, 361, 371, 372 802-909 food sources, 48 and growth, 280, 437, 441, 457, 459 function, 38, 424-425 high fat diets, 452, 769, 772, 792-810 integrated dietary planning, 964 inadequate intakes, 437-438 metabolism, 189, 275, 277, 348, 361, and insulin sensitivity, 62, 303, 430, 437, 371, 372, 425, 430-431, 453 438, 802-808 oxidation, 166, 279, 430, 432, 440, 453, intervention studies, 64, 794-796 920 by life stage and gender group, 9, 456- storage, 430 460, 1038-1039, 1040-1041, 1070-1071 transport, 429, 430, 432 and lipid profile, 58, 429, 437, 483, 544, Federation of American Societies for 550-559, 560, 777-782, 809, 815 Experimental Biology, 713, 716 low fat diets, 359, 366, 375, 378-379, 438, FELS Longitudinal Study, 174, 181 442, 772-792 Female athlete triad, 928 malabsorption, 442, 452 Fetus and metabolic syndrome, 802 amino acids, 708-709, 732 and micronutrient intakes, 808-809, 816 congenital defects, 728 and obesity, 64, 459, 460, 772, 773-776, energy cost of tissue deposition, 190-192 792-797, 802, 803, 814 energy expenditure, 185, 437 oxidation, 452, 810, 832, 922 fatty acid metabolism, 433, 436, 445 physical activity and, 430, 452, 773 glucose metabolism, 189-190, 290-292, 910 planning intakes, 959 hypoxemia, 910 polyunsaturated intake and, 58 intrauterine growth delay, 728 protein and, 60, 271, 693 neural tube defects, 726 research recommendations, 324, 505, 514 protein, 839

1293 I NDEX Fiber, dietary or functional, 957-958. See also functional, 4, 339, 340, 341, 342, 343- 344, 345, 346-347, 348-350, 355, 369, individual sources of fiber absorption, metabolism and excretion, 361-362, 365, 366, 367, 369, 370, 371, 348-349 372, 374, 377, 379, 382, 388, 391, adverse effects of, 377, 391-395 395-399 allergic reactions, 396, 397, 399 and gastric emptying, 4, 63, 65, 339, 348, animal studies, 351, 361, 377 360, 370, 379, 382, 383 and appetite, 383 and gastrointestinal health, 348, 350, and Bacteriodes, 357 351, 352, 353-354, 355, 356, 357-358, between-country studies, 377-378 360-361, 370-372, 396-397, 398, 839 and Bifidobacteria, 354 genotoxicity, 396 and BMI, 352, 379, 383, 384 glucose response, 63, 339, 350, 351, 352- C-peptide response, 353, 361 353, 354, 355-356, 357, 359-360, 361, Canadian guidelines, 340, 349 380-382, 383, 388 and cancer, 54, 55-56, 319, 321, 339, and glycemic index of foods, 322, 360, 348, 373-380, 396, 398 361, 380-381, 382 case-control studies, 378 hazard identification for, 395-399 characteristics, 341-342 health benefits, 343 and CHD, 59-60, 322, 339, 356, 362-368, high fat diets and, 808 369, 387-388, 389, 563 high-fiber diets, 297, 374, 378-379, 383, clinical effects of inadequate intake, 361- 788, 839 362 and hyperlipidemia prevention, 355, and colon health, 55-56, 321, 339, 348, 362-368 358, 370-377, 385-386, 388 and hypertension, 60, 362-368, 369 definitions, 4, 339, 340-341, 342-343 insulin response, 60, 63, 297, 306-307, description of, 344-347 339, 351, 353, 355-356, 360, 380-382, developmental effects, 396 388 and diabetes type 2, 63, 352-353, 354, intervention studies, 344, 351, 358, 365- 355, 359-360, 380-382, 388 368, 374-377, 378-379, 381-382, 383- dietary, 4, 339, 340-343, 344, 345, 346, 384 347, 348, 349, 355, 361-369, 370-384, and Lactobacillus, 357 385-387, 390, 391, 394-395, 771, 788, and laxation, 339, 350, 351, 352, 353- 808, 838 354, 355, 356, 357-358, 360-361, 370- diverticular disease prevention, 371-372, 371, 372, 385-386, 388 388 and lipid metabolism, 297, 350, 351, and duodenal ulcer, 370, 372 352, 354, 355, 356-357, 358-359, 360, energy contribution, 348, 349, 371, 372, 361, 365-366, 388 383, 385, 386, 388, 788 and lipid profile, 4, 59-60, 339, 351, 352, epidemiological studies, 343-344, 362- 354, 355, 356, 357, 358-359, 360, 361, 365, 368, 373-374, 380-381, 382-383 365-368 and estrogen, 56, 378-380 low-fiber diets, 367, 838 evidence considered for estimating measures of efficacy, 344, 350 requirement for, 362-384 methodological problems with trials, examples of, 343 376-377 and fat absorption, 4, 339, 351-352, 367, and micronutrient absorption, 4, 29, 94, 369, 375, 376 348, 351-352, 369, 382, 391, 394-395, fatty acid metabolism, 348, 361, 371, 397-398, 838 372 nutrition labeling, 340, 344 fermentation of, 56, 348, 355, 371, 372, and obesity, 65, 352, 370, 382-384 375 physiological role, 343, 349-361 function, 38 properties, 339

1294 INDEX prospective studies, 378 Formulas, infant protective effects, 55-56, 59, 63, 322, amino acids, 731, 733 339, 348, 363, 367-368, 369, 372, 374, bioavailability of nutrients from, 26, 31, 375, 376-380 45, 431, 940, 944, 946 research recommendations, 399-400 carbohydrates, 280, 283 and satiety, 65, 348, 382-384, 388 cholesterol, 545, 548-549 sources, 48, 56, 341-342, 344, 349, 350, FAO/WHO/UNU recommendations, 390, 771 621 special considerations, 395 fat (total), 280-281, 448-451, 457 supplements, 60, 361, 365, 366, 370, 371, fatty acids, 461, 463, 466, 468, 479 372, 374, 383, 394, 398 protein, 280-281, 621 synthetic fibers, 342, 349-351 Fortified foods, 27, 85, 91-92. See also USDA database, 344, 346 Formulas, infant and water intake, 398 Fructans (dietary or functional fiber), 341, and weight control, 65, 339, 351-352, 342 370, 382-384 Fructooligosaccharides (dietary or Fiber, total (dietary + functional) functional fiber), 345-346, 353-354, AIs, 4, 7-8, 322, 339, 369, 372, 384-385, 396-397, 838 386, 389-390, 944-945 Fructosamine, 304-307 and cancer, 56, 373 Fructose, 59, 266, 267, 268, 273, 274, 276, definition, 4, 339, 340 294, 295, 297, 298-301, 302, 809, 813 and diabetes type 2, 382 Fructose-1-phosphate aldolase deficiency, dietary intakes, 339, 387, 391, 392-393, 809 1036-1037, 1226-1227 Fruits and vegetables, fiber and, 56, 363, expression of requirement, 384-385 371, 373, 374, 375, 378, 388, 394, 788 by life stage and gender group, 7-8, 384- 390, 1036-1037 G menu samples, 392-393 planning intakes, 957-958, 964 Galactomannans, 345, 352 Fibrinolysis, 60 Galactose, 266, 273-274, 276, 281 Fish and fish oil, 55, 59, 826-828, 832 Galacturonic acid, 345 Fluoride, 297 Gallbladder disease, 234-235 Folate/folic acid, 375, 726, 789, 790-791, γ-Linoleic acid, 426, 446, 476, 477, 824 808, 812, 816, 1228-1243 Gastric emptying Food. See also Thermic effect of food amino acids, 615 additives, 90, 350, 366, 391 energy density of food and, 795 allergies, 692 fat, 438 amino acid composition, 683-686, 689- fiber and, 4, 63, 65, 339, 348, 360, 370, 690 379, 382, 383 energy-dense, nutrient-poor, 302, 312, Gastrointestinal distress, fiber intake and, 794-796 394-395, 396-397, 398 palatability, 425, 795, 808, 809 Gastrointestinal health plant- vs. animal-derived, 771 amino acid supplementation and, 698, safety, 86-90, 104 700, 714, 720, 722, 724, 726, 733 supplementation trials, 654 fiber and, 348, 350, 351, 352, 353-354, Food and Agriculture Organization, 84, 355, 356, 357-358, 360-361, 370-372, 110, 621, 634, 648, 684 396-397, 398, 839 Food Guide Pyramid, 266, 267, 391, 771 protein intake and, 844 Food quotient, 119-120 Gender differences. See also Men; Women Food sources. See also individual nutrients added sugars, 988-991 determination of, 50 amino acids, 673-675, 732, 992-1027

1295 I NDEX BMI, 125-129, 1078-1087, 1098-1103 energy cost of, 114 body composition and size, 128, 142, glycerol from fat and, 278-279, 289, 292- 1078-1103 293, 430 body fat, 1078-1101 in infants, 280 and carbohydrate–lipid oxidation insulin and, 274 balance, 921 pregnancy and, 189 cardiovascular disease, 60 protein and, 278, 284, 287-288, 293 dietary intakes, 265, 294, 473, 474, 692, starvation and, 277 988-1065 Glucoregulatory hormones, 57 EER, 169-170 Glucose, 266, 345 energy expenditure, 108, 114, 132, 140- in human milk, 282-283 141, 143, 148, 157, 158, 217 intestinal absorption, 63, 273, 383 energy intake, 473 transporters, 273 fat (dietary), 473 Glucose–alanine cycle, 607 fiber, 386, 387, 389, 391 Glucose–glutamine, 607 growth velocity, 33, 142, 175, 922-923 Glucose metabolism. See also linoleic acid, 463-464 Gluconeogenesis; Insulin response metabolic rate, 141 adaptation, 277-278 monounsaturated fatty acids, 474 adolescents, 288-289 nutrient intakes with added sugars, adults, 285-289, 388, 784-785 1203-1225 altitude and, 149 physical activity, 921 for brain utilization, 38, 265, 273, 276, polyunsaturated fatty acids, 8, 463-464, 277, 279-280, 285-289 470, 471, 478 children, 286-287, 288-289 protective effects of nutrients, 60 energy yields, 109, 274 puberty onset, 33 epidemiological studies, 380-381 reporting of dietary intakes, 117 fat intake and, 289, 430, 784-785, 802- saturated fatty acids, 474 909 weight and heights, reference, 35 fiber and, 63, 339, 350, 351, 352-353, Genetic factors 354, 355-356, 357, 359-360, 361, 380- body composition and size, 144, 146 382, 383, 388 cancer, 55 glycemic index of foods and, 63, 268, CHD, 57 306, 322 cholesterol, 58, 544, 545, 546, 561-562 high fat, low carbohydrate diets and, diabetes mellitus, type 2, 62 437, 802-808 energy expenditure, 144-145 infants, 280, 281, 288-289 energy requirements, 144 intervention studies, 381-382 fat balance, 452 intracellular utilization, 274 obesity, 146, 452, 784 lactation and, 196 Genetic markers of disease, 41 and lipogenesis, 59 Genotoxicity, 396, 720 low fat, high carbohydrate diets and, Glucagon, 189, 277 438, 784-785 Glucated hemoglobin (HbA1c), 308-309, and ketosis, 276, 277, 278-279, 280, 281, 322 284, 287, 289, 290-291, 430 Glucoamylase, 272 methodological issues, 280 Glucocorticoids, 602 monounsaturated fatty acids and, 819 Gluconeogenesis muscle uptake, 63, 430 amino acids and, 276, 278, 288-289, 604, obesity and, 204, 802 606 physical activity and, 60, 921 carbohydrate-free diet and, 275-276, 277, polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 821, 287-288 822-823

1296 INDEX pregnancy and, 189-190 Glycemic response, 63, 268, 322 and protein requirement, 278, 605 of diabetics, 268, 271 saturated fatty acids and, 484-485 to fiber, 63, 352 weight loss and, 204 palatability of foods and, 795 Glutamate, 591, 593, 594, 596, 604, 605, Glyceraldehyde, 274 606, 608, 697, 701, 703, 709, 712, Glycerol, 289, 292-293. See also 717. See also Monosodium glutamate Triacylglycerol or triacylglyceride Glutamic acid (dispensable), 592, 593, 594, Glycine (dispensable), 591, 593, 596, 597, 596, 597, 712-718, 728, 736, 1000- 607, 608, 678, 719-720, 729, 731, 736, 1001 1002-1003 Glutaminase, 717 Glycogen Glutamine (dispensable), 591, 593, 594, amino acids and, 705 596, 605, 607, 706, 717-719 food sources, 265-266 Glutamine synthetase, 717 repletion, 64, 924 Glutathione, 607, 608, 620 storage, 273, 276, 281, 595-596 Glycemic index (GI), 321-323 synthesis and utilization, 274, 277, 920, amount of food ingested and, 268 921, 923 and BMI, 313 Glycoprotein, 692 calculation, 268, 307 Glycosis-tricarboxylic acid (TCA) pathway, and cancer risk, 310-311, 319, 321 605, 606 and carbohydrate metabolism, 304-307 Greenland Eskimos, 275, 284, 493, 494, 826 and CHD risk, 303, 308-311, 322 Growth and development. See also individual definition, 268 life-stage groups and diabetes type 2, 63, 302, 304-307, adaptation, 151, 220, 437 308-309, 322 amino acids and, 598, 607, 665, 666, digestability of foods and, 269 669, 697, 701, 707, 710, 713, 719, and energy intake, 269, 313, 320, 322 720, 721, 724, 725, 728 fiber and, 322, 360, 361, 380-381, 382 carbohydrates and, 280-281, 922-923 food characteristics and, 269-270 catch-up in children, 221, 222, 840 food values, 268, 270 children, 32, 47, 134, 142, 151, 167-168, and glucated hemoglobin (HbA1c), 308- 174, 175, 221, 222, 437, 441, 456, 309, 322 459, 609, 611, 810-811, 839-840 and glucose metabolism, 63, 268, 306, defined, 177 322 and EAR derivation, 47 and HDL cholesterol, 308-309, 322 and EER derivation, 116, 166-168, 174, high-GI diets, 302, 306-307, 313, 318, 181 323 energy expenditure and, 134, 164, 190- and hunger and satiety, 313 192 and insulin sensitivity, 63, 306-307, 308- energy requirements, 45, 116-117, 142, 312, 322 166-168, 174, 177, 181, 190-192, 441 and lipid metabolism, 269, 270-271, 297, fat intake and, 280, 437, 441, 457, 459 302-303, 304-308, 322 formula-fed infants, 280-281, 448-451, 457 low-GI diets, 304-307, 313, 321-322 gender differences, 33, 142, 175, 922-923 of mixed meals, 270-271 impaired, 151, 217, 220, 221, 222, 437, methodological issues, 322 721, 811, 839-840 and obesity, 313, 322-323 lipid metabolism, 922-923 palatibility of foods and, 272 low fat, high carbohydrate diets and, and physical activity, 318-319 810-811 utilization, 269-272 maternal and fetal tissues, 92, 190-192 and weight loss, 313 measurement precision, 142 Glycemic load, 269-272, 303, 322, 380-381 physical activity and, 922-923

1297 I NDEX polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 444-447, and CHD, 57 453, 460 cholesterol intake and, 549-562, 563, protein intake and, 280-281, 608-609, 568-569 654, 683, 811, 839-840 in diabetes, 308-309 puberty and, 142, 922 fat intake and, 437, 483, 777-782 stunting, 151, 217, 220, 221, 222, 811, fiber intake and, 354, 357, 358, 359, 361, 840 366 undernutrition and, 220, 221, 222 glycemic index and, 302, 303, 308-309, velocity, 33, 47, 142, 151, 166-168, 181 322 Growth hormone, 277, 699, 715, 724, 923 hazard identification, 549, 560-562 Guar gum, 63, 352-353, 355-356, 365, 366, lipoprotein lipase activity and, 61 382, 396 low fat, high carbohydrate diets and, Gums (dietary or functional fiber), 345, 777-781 355, 365, 367, 369, 388, 391, 396. See monounsaturated fatty acid intake and, also Guar gum 817-818 physical exercise and, 60, 61 polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 820, H 821, 822-823, 826, 828, 830-831 protective effect, 560 Hawaiian natives, 798 saturated fatty acids and, 483 Hazard identification. See also individual sugar intake and, 298-301, 302 nutrients trans fatty acids and, 495-503 animal data, 94-95, 96, 696, 697-698, transport, 543, 544 701-702, 707-708, 711-712, 713-714, Health Canada, 349, 481, 883, 979 721-722, 724, 725-726, 727, 729, 730- Health Professionals Follow-Up Study, 321, 732, 734-735 363, 364, 368, 371-372, 375-376, 377, asthma, 716-717 387, 562, 563, 827 behavior, 295-296 Healthy People 2000, 882 cancer, 319-321 Heart disease. See also Cardiovascular causality, 94, 96, 102 disease; Coronary heart disease Chinese restaurant syndrome, 715-716 carbohydrate intake and, 59 components of, 87, 94-98 fiber intake and, 59-60 data sources, 96-97 physical activity and, 60-61 defined, 87, 975 protein intake and, 60 dental caries, 296-297 Heat of combustion, 108, 109 developmental studies, 708-710 Height. See also Reference weights and diabetes, 303, 306-307 heights evaluation process, 95 BMI and, 1080-1081 human studies, 94, 696, 698-699, 702- and body composition, 125, 128-130, 703, 705-706, 712, 714-715, 722-723, 1078-1081, 1088-1089 724-725, 726, 727, 729, 730, 732-733, catch-up growth, 221 735 and energy expenditure, 157, 159-161 insulin sensitivity, 303, 306-307 Heme, 607, 608 maple syrup urine disease, 706 Hemicelluloses (dietary fiber), 345, 348, metabolic considerations, 705 390 obesity, 307, 311-313, 314-319 Hemoglobin, 595, 720-721 pharmacokinetic and metabolic data, 96- Hepatic lipase activity, 61 97, 98 Hepatomegaly, 721 physical activity, 318-319 Heterocyclic amines, 379 HDL cholesterol. See also Lipids and lipid High fat, high carbohydrate diet, 367 metabolism High fat, high protein diet, 275 carbohydrate intake and, 59, 781-784

1298 INDEX High fat, low carbohydrate diets, 103 monounsaturated fatty acids, 474, 477 added sugars, 810, 816 nonprotein nitrogen content, 620, 657, adults, 792-810 658 AMDRs, 809, 816 nutritional adequacy, 31, 447, 456, 662, cancer risk, 808 663 CHD risk, 797-802, 814-815 polyunsaturated fatty acids, 447, 461, children, 814-816 462-463, 466, 467 diabetes (type 2) risk, 802-808 protein content, 620, 622-623, 657, 658, energy intakes, 793-795 686, 687 epidemiological studies, 792-794, 797- saturated fatty acids, 474, 475-476 798, 803 trans fatty acids, 479, 480 fat excess, 808-809 volume of intake, 31, 45, 171, 172-173, and glucose intolerance, 437, 802-808 281, 456, 663 hyperinsulinemia, 802-808 Human studies. See also Balance studies intervention studies, 794-796, 798-799, advantages, 91, 98 803-807 amino acids, 608-699, 702-703, 705-706, metabolic syndrome, 802-808 712, 714-715, 720, 722-723, 724-725, and micronutrient inadequacy or excess, 726, 727, 729, 730, 731-733, 735 808-809, 816 controlled, 40 obesity risk, 792-797, 814 dose–response assessment, 98 saturated fatty acid intakes, 799-802 feeding trials, 40-41 sugar inadequacy, 809 limitations of, 40-41, 94 High-fiber diets, 297, 374, 378-379, 383, Hunger, 117, 313, 732, 795, 796 788, 839 Hydrogenated fat, 427-428, 436, 455, 456, High fructose corn syrup, 294, 295 479, 495, 498-504, 836 High glycemic index diets, 302 5-Hydroxyindoleacetic acid, 732 Hippuric acid, 604 Hydroxylysine, 593 Histidine (indispensable), 589, 591, 592, 3-Hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A, 545 593, 597, 604, 662, 663-665, 666, 668, Hydroxyproline, 592-593, 728-729 672-675, 678-682, 686, 687, 689, 709, Hyperactivity, 295 712, 720-723, 736, 1004-1005 Hyperammonemia, 699, 714, 718 Homocysteine, 302, 726 Hypercalciuria, 694, 841 Homovanillic acid, 735 Hyperchloremic acidosis, 698 Honolulu Heart Program, 562 Hypercholesteremia, 276, 352, 355, 356, Human chorionic somatomammotropin, 189 358, 359, 366, 367, 494, 495, 721, Human milk. See also Breastfeeding; 811, 842 Formulas, infant; Infants; Lactation Hyperglutamic acidemia, 718 amino acid content, 598, 607, 621, 657, Hyperglycemia, 275, 353, 815 663, 664-665, 686, 687 Hyperinsulinemia, 130, 784-785, 802-808, and behavioral development, 621 832 bioavailability of nutrients, 431, 447, Hyperkalemia, 699 621, 944 Hyperlipidemia, 130, 302, 304-308, 322, carbohydrate content, 281-283, 292 323, 355, 362-368 cholesterol, 546-549 Hyperlipoproteinemia, 359 energy content, 171, 172-173, 199, 457, Hyperphenylalaninemia, 728 461, 468, 474, 477 Hypertension, 57, 735 energy cost of synthesis, 195-196 BMI and, 124, 230-231 energy output, 199 fiber and, 60, 362-368, 369 fat content, 281, 431, 456, 458-459, 468 polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 59 fiber content, 385 protective effects of nutrients, 59, 362-368 and immune function, 621 risk factors, 130

1299 I NDEX Hyperthermia, 910, 926-927 carbohydrate, 30, 32, 46, 280-283, 288- Hypertriacylglyceridemia or 289, 291 hypertriacylglycerolemia, 59, 297, cholesterol, 545-549 323 dietary intakes, 30, 46, 170, 171, 199, Hypoalbuminemic malnutrition, 608 457, 624 Hypoenergetic diet, 311 EARs, 46, 624-629, 664-670, 672 Hypoglycemia, 295, 910 EERs, 32, 45, 46, 164-171 Hyponatremia, 699 energy expenditure and deposition, 116, Hypothermia, 927 122-123, 164, 167 Hypothermogenicity, 696 extrapolation of data from adults to, 46, Hypoxia, 149 47 extrapolation of data from younger to older infants, 31-32 I factorial modeling, 624, 628 fat, 4, 30, 32, 46, 432, 437, 456-459, 769, Ileostomy patients, 357 816 Imino acids, 591, 592 fiber, 385 Immune function, 57, 396, 439, 487-492, formula-fed, 26, 31, 45, 165, 166, 168, 697-698, 699, 839 280-281, 283, 446-447, 448-451, 454, Immunosuppression, 492 461, 463, 466, 468, 621 Indian Experiment of Infarct Survival, 828 glucose metabolism, 280, 281, 288-289 Indicator amino acid oxidation (IAAO) growth, 30, 45, 142, 164, 166-168, 280- method, 617-619, 670-671, 676, 677, 281, 436, 437, 445, 446-447, 448-451, 678 457, 460, 465, 468, 472, 607, 609, Indicators of nutrient adequacy. See also 611, 630, 669, 982 specific indicators, nutrients, and life hyperammonemic, 699 stages language development, 447 methodological considerations, 43 malnutrition, 165, 167, 608-609 risk reduction-based methodological considerations, 44-46 Infants, 0-12 months. See also Formulas, milk consumption, 26 infant; Human milk; Life-stage monounsaturated fatty acids, 432 groups newborn, 92, 142, 165, 166, 291, 433, ages 0 through 6 months, 31, 35, 44, 45, 594, 595, 598, 603 169, 199, 201, 281, 283, 385, 456-457, nitrogen balance studies, 624-627 461, 468, 619-623, 662-665 of overweight mothers, 134 ages 7 through 12 months, 31-32, 35, 45- on parenteral nutrition, 722-723 46, 169, 199, 283, 385, 457, 461, 468, phenylketonuria, 728 624-630, 664-670, 672 physical activity, 166 AIs, 4, 26, 30-32, 44-46, 280-283, 456-457, polyunsaturated fatty acids, 30, 46, 433, 460-461, 466-469, 619-623, 662-665, 435, 438, 439, 440, 445-447, 448-451, 944, 946 454, 460-463, 472 amino acids, 30, 45, 594, 598, 607, 614, premature, 122-123, 165, 166, 167, 280, 619, 621, 662-670, 672, 686, 687, 719, 435, 445, 447, 456, 469, 594, 607, 722-723, 724, 726 609, 719, 731, 840, 910 birth weight, 456, 471, 650, 654, 719, protein, 30, 45, 46, 595, 602, 603, 608- 731, 811, 839, 840, 910 609, 611, 619-630, 669, 686, 687 BMI, 1106-1114 RDAs, 31, 629-630, 672 BMR, 164-165, 1106-1114 recommended food sources, 26, 31, 32, body fatness, 142, 621 45, 46 brain development, 280, 288-289, 291, saturated fatty acid, 431 445, 448-451, 466, 468, 545, 548, 608- sleepiness, 733 609

1300 INDEX special considerations, 45, 283, 457, 461, Interactions of dietary factors 463, 469, 621-623 adverse, 85, 95 TEE, 166, 168, 169, 170, 1106-1114 amino acids, 721-723, 725, 726, 731 thermic effect of food, 165 and bioavailability, 93, 271, 281, 424 thermoregulation, 165-166 and blood pressure trans fatty acids, 456 fatty acids, 453-456 visual development, 448-451 methodological issues, 41-42, 53, 376-377 weight and height, reference, 35, 132- Intermediate density lipoproteins, 545 135, 1106-1114 Intervention studies weight gain, 46, 621 breast cancer, 378-379 zinc, 722-723 carbohydrate, 785, 786-787 Inflammatory disorders, 824 CHD, 365-368, 798-799, 817-818, 821, Institute of Medicine, 45, 46 828-831 Insulin resistance, 2, 62, 63, 189, 275, 291, colon cancer, 374-375, 376-377 303, 306-307, 308-312, 320, 784-785, confounding of dietary factors, 376-377 802-808, 921. See also Diabetes design features, 43 mellitus diabetes mellitus (type 2), 381-382, 785, Insulin Resistance Atherosclerosis Study, 786-787, 806-807, 832-833 803 of dietary patterns, 43 Insulin response. See also Hyperinsulinemia fiber and disease prevention, 344, 351, age/aging and, 62 365-368, 374-377, 378-379, 381-382, amino acids, 696, 701, 705, 710 383-384 and cancer, 320 glucose response, 381-382, 803-807 to carbohydrate intake, 268, 269, 273, high fat, low carbohydrate diets, 794- 274, 275, 277, 303, 320, 437 796, 798-799, 803-807 and diabetes, type 2, 63, 275, 303, 306- hyperlipidemia prevention, 365-368 307, 308-312, 784-785 hypertension prevention, 365-368 epidemiological studies, 380-381 insulin response to fat intake, 803-807 to fat, 62, 303, 430, 437, 438, 484-485, low n-9 monounsaturated fatty acid 802-808 diets, 817-818 fiber intake and, 60, 63, 297, 306-307, meta-analyses, 58, 777, 798 339, 351, 353, 355-356, 360, 380-382, methodological issues, 43, 376-377 388 obesity, 311, 773-776, 794-796, 797 to glucose metabolism, 268, 273, 274 polyunsaturated fatty acids, 821, 828, glycemic index of foods and, 63, 269, 830-831, 832-833 306-307, 308-312, 322 satiety and weight maintenance, 383-384 hazard identification, 303, 306-307 timing of, 376 intervention studies, 381-382 Intestinal absorption. See also individual metabolic syndrome, 802 nutrients obesity and, 62, 303, 784, 802, 803 active transport, 273 oral contraceptives and, 921 aging and, 447, 450-452 parenteral nutrition, 438 estrogen, 378 physical activity and, 60, 62, 63, 303, facilitated diffusion, 273 803, 921 fiber intake and, 60, 348, 378, 383 pregnancy and, 189, 291 glucose, 382, 383 to protein intake, 279, 602 monosaccharides, 272-273 sensitivity of, 62, 63, 189, 291, 303, 306- and sensitivity to nutrient toxicity, 92 307, 308-312, 322 slowing, 323 to undernutrition, 220 Intestinal metabolic dysfunction, 594 Insulin-like growth factors, 320 Intestinal obstruction, 395, 398 Inuits, 275

1301 I NDEX Inulin (dietary or functional fiber), 341, milk energy output, 172-173, 199 345, 353-354, 390, 391, 394, 397, 838 physical activity, 197-198, 199, 1166-1167 Iowa Women’s Health Study, 307, 363 polyunsaturated fatty acids, 465-466, 471- Irritable bowel syndrome, 353-354, 358, 395 472 Iron, 391, 394, 398, 725, 771, 789, 790-793, protein, 840 812, 813, 840, 981, 982, 1204-1211, RDAs, 293, 659, 682 1214-1221, 1224-1225, 1228-1243 stage of, 172-173 Isoleucine (indispensable), 589, 591, 593, TEE, 116, 198-199, 201, 1166-1167 597, 662, 663-665, 666, 668, 669, 672- TEF, 196-197 675, 678, 679-682, 686, 687, 689, 704- total energy requirements, 200-201 711, 736, 1006-1007 ULs, 92 Isomaltose, 272 Lactose, 266, 267, 268, 272, 273, 281, 282- 283, 292, 813 Lactulose, 397 J Lauric acid, 58, 425, 483 Laxation, fiber consumption and, 339, 350, Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on 351, 352, 353-354, 355, 356, 357-358, Food Additives, 90, 713 360-361, 370-371, 372, 385-386, 388 LDL cholesterol. See also Lipoprotein metabolism K carbohydrate intake and, 781, 782-784, 797 KANWU study, 485 and CHD risk, 57, 481-484, 542, 548-549, Karaya gum, 367, 382, 838 573, 798-799, 815 Keratin, 592 children, 815 Ketoacids and ketosis, 276, 277, 278-279, cholesterol intake and, 544-545, 548-562, 280, 281, 284, 287, 289, 290-291, 430, 563, 568, 569, 573 604, 605, 704 fiber intake and, 59, 351, 352, 355, 356, Kidney stones, 841-842 357, 358, 359, 361, 365-366, 367-368 Krebs-Henseleit cycle, 604-605, 606 glycemic index and, 302 hazard identification, 549, 560-562 L low fat, high carbohydrate diets and, 777-781 Lactase, 272, 592 monounsaturated fatty acids and, 58, Lactate, 276 486, 817-818 Lactation. See also Breastfeeding; Human polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 58-59, milk 821, 822-823, 828, 830-831 adaptation to, 34, 47, 197, 290, 291, 650 protein intake and, 60 adolescents, 201, 293, 388-389, 465-466, saturated fatty acids and, 58, 422, 432, 471-472, 659 481-484, 798-799 AIs, 34, 388-389, 465-466, 471-472 sugar intake and, 297-301, 302 amino acids, 681-682 trans fatty acids and, 58, 423, 494-503, 504 BMR, 195-196 Legumes, 365, 366, 370, 382, 390 and body weight, 199-200, 201 Leucine (indispensable), 589, 591, 593, 596, carbohydrates and, 196 597, 617, 618, 650, 660, 663-665, 666, derivation of DRIs for, 34, 48 668, 671-682, 686, 687, 689, 704-711, EARs, 34, 292-293, 656-659, 681 736, 1008-1009 EERs, 107, 116-117, 195-202 Leukotrienes, 434, 454, 824, 838 and energy ependiture, 116, 198-199 Life-stage groups. See also Adolescents; energy mobilization, 34, 199-200 Adults; Children; Infants; Toddlers fiber, 388-389 alcohol, 1064-1065

1302 INDEX amino acids, 662-682, 992-1027 cardiovascular disease, 302, 562-569 carbohydrates, 6, 280-293, 988-991, 1032- and CHD, 57, 60, 356, 481-484, 562-569 1033, 1068-1069 fatty acids and, 424-425, 430-431, 493 categories, 30-34 fiber and, 297, 350, 351, 352, 354, 355, cholesterol, 546-549, 1058-1059 356-357, 358-359, 360, 361, 365-366, EERs by, 5, 164-223 388 energy, 1028-1031, 1034-1035, 1040- glycemic index of diet and, 269, 270-271, 1041, 1062-1067, 1072-1075 297, 302-303, 304-308 fat (total) by, 9, 456-460, 1038-1041, and growth and development, 922-923 1070-1071 peroxidation, 493, 504, 823-824, 8 fiber, 384-390, 1036-1037 38 intakes by, 988-1065 physical activity and, 430, 917-923 monounsaturated fatty acids, 1044-1045 sugars and, 297-302 polyunsaturated fatty acids, 11, 460-466, thermoregulation and, 166 820, 1046-1057 weight loss and, 204 protein (total) by, 619-662, 1060-1063, Lipolysis, 277 1074-1075 Lipoprotein (a), 503 saturated fatty acids, 1042-1043, 1072- Lipoprotein lipase activity, 61 1073 Lipoprotein metabolism, 61, 369, 429, 436, and toxicological sensitivities, 97-98 438, 544-545, 548, 562, 563, 568-569, weights and heights, reference 573, 815. See also Cholesterol; HDL Lignin (dietary fiber), 344, 346, 350, 356 cholesterol; LDL cholesterol Limit dextrins, 272 Liver Linoleic acid. See also α-Linoleic acid; alcohol dehydrogenase, 108-109 Conjugated linoleic acid disease, 705 absorption, 431 function, 92, 704, 705, 721 AIs, 5, 8, 10, 423, 460-461, 463-466, 770, Locust bean gum, 367, 382 822, 825, 944 Longevity, composition of energy sources AMDRs, 15, 770, 825-826 and, 39 and cancer, 825 Low density lipoprotein (LDL), 431. See also and CHD, 821 LDL cholesterol deficiency, 4-5, 423, 426, 438, 464 oxidation, 504, 823-824 dietary intakes, 8, 478, 1044-1045 Low fat, high carbohydrate diets food sources, 771 added sugars, 788-789, 812-813 function, 38, 423, 426-427 adults, 772-792 in infant formula, 461, 463 and cancer risk, 772 interaction with α-linoleic acid, 447, 453- CHD risk, 437-438, 772, 777-784 455, 472, 825 children, 438, 810-814 by life stage and gender group, 10, 460- diabetes (type 2) risk, 437-438, 772, 784- 466 785 and lipid peroxidation, 824, 838 and diarrhea, 438 metabolism, 433, 434, 440, 442, 453, epidemiological studies, 783, 785 455-456, 476, 838 fat oxidation, 810 protective effects of, 821 fiber, 367, 788 supplementation, 442, 444 glucose intolerance risk, 784-785 trans fatty acids and, 455-456 and growth, 810-811 Lipids and lipid metabolism high monounsaturated fatty acid diet aging and, 922 compared, 817 amino acids and, 724, 731 and hunger, 795 carbohydrates and, 275, 277, 278-279, hyperinsulinemia, 784-785 297-303, 781, 782-784, 917-923 hypocaloric diets, 772

1303 I NDEX intervention studies, 311, 773-776, 777, Men. See also Gender differences 785, 786-787 carbohydrate intakes compared to other isocaloric diets, 772, 773, 777 nutrients, 1232-1237 and lipid levels, 777-781 CHD, 363, 364 and micronutrient inadequacy or excess, cholesterol, 354 785, 788-789, 811-814 diabetes type 2, 380, 381 and obesity, 769, 773-776, 777 fiber, 363, 364, 380, 381 and physical activity, 773 lipoprotein profile, 61 protein intake and, 843 nutrient intakes with sugars, 1208-1213 total sugars, 789, 792, 813-814 PAL, 893 and weight, 772, 773-777 protein intakes, 695 Low glycemic index diets, 304-307 reference weights and heights, 125 Low-protein diets, 648, 667, 697, 707, 709, TEE, 147 721, 731-732, 839-840 Menstrual cycle, 140, 141, 921, 928 Lowest-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level Mental health, 151, 276, 720, 913, 916 (LOAEL), 90, 98, 100-101, 224, 569, Mental retardation, 728 975 Menus, sample, 392-393 Lung cancer, 54-55, 319, 486, 568, 570-573, Metabolic alkalosis, 699 808, 837, 844 Metabolic disorders, 697, 700, 704, 705, Luteinizing hormone, 715 706, 710, 714, 727, 728, 735 Lyon Diet Heart Study, 829 Metabolic equivalent, 975 Lysine (indispensable), 589, 591, 593, 597, Metabolic syndrome, 802 602, 608, 614, 616, 617, 618, 650, Metabolism. See also Basal metabolic rate; 661, 663-665, 666, 668, 669-670, 671- Glucose metabolism; Lipids and lipid 682, 685, 686, 687, 689, 692, 723-725, metabolism; individual nutrients 736, 1010-1011 cellular uptake of nutrients, 273 eiconasanoid, 55 glycogen synthesis and utilization, 274 M insulin, 275 intracellular utilization of sugars, 273- Macronutrients. See also Carbohydrate; Fat; 274 Protein physical activity and, 138 brain requirements, 771 splanchnic, 600, 717 defined, 108 Methionine (indispensable), 589, 591, 593, imbalances and chronic diseases, 771 594, 597, 608, 614, 663-665, 666, 668, integrated planning of intakes, 936-966 672-675, 677, 678, 679-682, 685, 686, Magnesium, 394, 789, 790-791, 813, 838, 687, 689, 711, 723, 725-726, 736, 1204-1211, 1214-1221, 1224-1225 1012-1013 Malabsorption syndrome, 30 Methodological issues. See also Data and Malnutrition, 167, 437, 595, 608-610, 704, database issues; Indicators of 839. See also Starvation nutrient adequacy Malondialdehyde, 711 AI derivation for infants, 44-46 Malonyl coenzyme A, 274 in balance studies, 40-41, 617, 676 Maltase, 272 BMI, 121, 124-125 Maltodextrin, 360 brain blood flow methods, 280 Maltose, 266, 272 children, 25, 47-48 Mannitol, 266 confounding and bias, 41-42, 376-377, Mannose, 345 451, 484, 643 Maple syrup urine disease, 704, 706 data sources, 39-44 Masai, 275 depletion–repletion studies, 40-41 Melanin, 608

1304 INDEX in dietary intake estimates, 42, 48, 49-50, Mohawk Indians, 146 110, 116, 117-118, 307, 312, 313, 322, MONICA Study, 316-317, 318-319, 790-793 563, 624, 643, 936-937 Monosaccharides, 59, 265, 266, 272, 276, direct amino acid method, 616-617, 618 281, 297, 342 DLW method, 120-121, 152, 198 Monosodium glutamate, 695, 712-713, 715- EARs for children and adults, 25, 46-47 717 epidemiological evidence, 40, 41-42, Monounsaturated fatty acids (cis isomer). 322, 569 See also individual fatty acids experimental studies, 40 absorption, 432 extrapolation from animal studies, 40, adverse effects of overconsumption, 485- 87, 95, 97, 98, 100, 101, 492, 562, 486 703, 705, 1245-1246 AMDR, 820 extrapolation from other age groups, 25, and cancer risk, 55, 486, 819 26-27, 31-32, 34, 44, 46, 47, 101, 283 and cardiovascular disease, 485-486 extrapolation from short periods to 24 and CHD risk, 58-59, 817-818 hours, 616 and diabetes, 819 factorial approach, 25, 116, 118, 611, dietary intakes, 474, 1044-1045 981 energy contribution, 474, 478 generalizability of studies, 41, 42, 100, epidemiological studies, 817 118 evidence considered for estimating glycemic index calculation, 307 requirements, 441, 460 growth measurement, 142 excretion, 433 human feeding studies, 40-41 food sources, 426, 474, 478, 816, 819-820 indicator amino acid oxidation method, function, 4, 426, 432, 460 618, 619 and glucose metabolism, 819 interactions of dietary factors, 41-42, 53, hazard identification, 485-486 376-377 high n-9 fatty acid diets, 820 intervention studies, 42-43, 376-377, 725 insulin sensitivity, 806 Monte Carlo approach, 981-982 intervention studies, 817-818 multicollinearity, 42 by life stage and gender groups, 1044- nitrogen balance method, 611-612, 635, 1045 643, 644, 688 and lipid profile, 58, 486, 817-818 in nutrient intake estimates, 41-42, 48- low n-9 fatty acid diets, 817-820 49, 941-945 metabolism, 4, 423, 432-433 observational studies, 40, 41-42 and micronutrient inadequacy, 819-820 plasma amino acid response method, n-9, 460 615 protective effects, 816-817, 819 pregnant and lactating women research recommendations, 505 randomized clinical trials, 40, 42-43, 376- Montreal Diet Dispensary, 654 377 Mortality research needs, 969-970 BMI and, 484 in risk assessment, 91-94, 100 saturated fatty acids and, 484 single treatment vs. multitreatment MSG Symptom Complex, 714, 715-717 parallel designs, 492 Mucins, 592, 601, 683 supplementation trials, 43 Multiple Risk Factor Intervention Trial, 827, weighing the evidence, 3, 43-44, 94 914-915 weight maintenance in overweight and Myosin, 593, 595 obese adults, 202-204 Myristic acid, 58, 425, 483 Methylcellulose (dietary fiber), 341 Myristoleic acid, 426 Mevalonic acid, 545

1305 I NDEX N losses, 598, 600-601, 610-611, 612, 625, 634, 635, 644, 646, 650, 667, 668, N-Methyl-D-aspartate, 711 671, 682-683 National Cholesterol Education Program, maintenance requirement, 667-669 798 median requirement, 635, 637-638 National Health and Nutrition Examination metabolism, 278, 598, 603-605, 718, 720 Survey III, 36, 46 nonprotein, 607-608, 620 adjustments to data, 49-50 and potassium balance, 650-653 at-risk-for-overweight category, 130 protein conversion factor, 684-685 body composition data, 124, 125, 130, protein/nitrogen ratio, 684-685 982, 1078-1103 quality as protein source, 611, 684-685 dietary intake data, 283, 295, 473, 474, sources, 594 624, 701, 704, 711, 712, 720, 721, Nitrogen balance studies 723, 725, 727, 729, 730, 731, 734, adolescents, 624-627, 632, 664-666 789, 792, 812, 988-1027 adults, 275, 287, 618, 633-643, 661 Epidemiological Follow-up Study, 827 amino acids, 612, 613-614, 618, 662, 664- lipid profiles, 302 666, 670-671, 676, 677, 678, 688 survey design, 49 animals, 671 underreporting of energy intakes, 49 children, 624-627, 664-666 National Institutes of Health, 121 data analysis, 639, 677 National Nutrition Monitoring System, 936 energy intake estimates and, 647, 648 National Nutritious Food Basket, 481 factor analysis, 639-643 National Research Council, 87 infants, 624-627 Nationwide Food Consumption Survey, 314- limitations, 611-612, 618, 635, 643, 644, 315, 318-319, 474, 790-793 688 Navajo Indians, 173 meta analysis, 643, 644, 646, 648, 691 Nervonic acid, 426 older adults, 646-648 Netherlands Cohort Study, 378 pregnant women, 650-653, 654-655 Neural development, 444-447 protein, 611-613, 633-635, 639, 642-643, Neural tube defects, 726 650-653, 654-655, 684, 691, 693, Neurological effects. See also Brain 1250-1253 amino acids, 696, 699, 701-702, 703, 704- statistical analysis of data, 612-613, 635, 705, 706, 711, 714, 715, 717, 718, 638, 639, 642-643, 666 719, 727, 728, 733 younger adults, 633-635, 639, 642-643 Neurotransmitters, 704-705, 707, 709, 710, No-Observed-Adverse-Effect Level 711, 714, 731, 732, 734 (NOAEL), 90, 98, 100, 101, 975 Niacin, 731, 790-791, 813-814, 1228-1243 Non-Hodgkin’s lymphoma, 844 Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, 453 Norepinephrine, 277, 735, 916 Nicotinic acid, 608, 792-793 Normative Aging Study, 484 Nitric oxide, 608 Normative requirement, 24 Nitrogen. See also Protein Nuclear peroxisome proliferator activating amino acid utilization through receptors, 425 nonprotein pathways, 607-608, 684 Nurses’ Health Study, 306-307, 363, 368, balance, 275, 279, 287, 594, 611, 694, 376, 377, 387, 563, 827-828, 842 718 Nutrient intakes. See also Dietary intakes carbohydrate-free diets and, 275 added sugar intakes and, 788-789, 790- content in dietary protein, 590 793, 1203-1225 factorial method, 610-611, 624, 628, 629 adjusting for day-to-day variation, 29, 49- host-colon nitrogen cycle, 600 50 individual variation, 612-613, 634, 635, assessment of, 42, 48-49, 937-945 649 bioavailability and, 29-30

1306 INDEX biochemical assessment, 944 epidemiological studies, 792-794, 796-797 calculation of, 941-945 fat intake and, 64, 459, 460, 769, 772, carbohydrate compared to other 773-776, 792-797, 802, 803, 814 nutrients, 1226-1243 fiber intake and, 65, 352, 370, 382-384 carbohydrate intake and micronutrients, genetic factors, 146, 452, 784 812, 816, 1226-1243 glucose metabolism, 204, 802 chronic intakes above the UL, 104, 105 glycemic index and, 313, 322 high fat, low carbohydrate diets and, health risks, 64, 130, 204, 224 808-809, 816 high fat, low carbohydrate diets and, low fat, high carbohydrate diets and, 769, 792-797 785, 788-789, 811-814 insulin resistance, 62, 303, 784, 802, 803 methodological considerations, 41, 42, intervention studies, 311, 773-776, 794- 46, 48-49, 941-945 796, 797 probability approach, 942-943, 944 lipid metabolism, 204 special considerations, 30 management, 204 Nutrient requirements, energy mechanisms for, 794-796 requirements compared, 110-111 palatability of foods and, 795 Nutrition Canada Survey, 983 physical activity and, 56, 65, 133, 140, Nutrition labels, 267, 340, 341 181, 209, 212, 1168-1182, 1184-1199 polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 832 pregnancy, 191 O prevalence, 773 protein intake and, 694, 843 Oat products, 60, 355-356, 365, 366, 368, and reference weights and heights, 982 378, 382, 394 resting metabolic rate, 133, 135, 137 Obesity and overweight risk factors, 64, 65 abdominal, 62, 64, 379, 802 saturated fatty acids and, 484 as adaptation, 150 sugar intake, 307, 310-313, 314-319, 323 adolescents, 313, 815, 1172-1173, 1178- susceptible populations, 134 1183, 1202 TEE, 133, 153, 156-157, 202-204, 209- adults, 153, 310-313, 814, 1184-1199, 1201 213, 1168-1182, 1184-1199, 1201-1202 amino acids and, 701, 704, 732 TEF, 133-134, 143 appetite sensations and, 795 and underreporting of energy intakes, BEE, 217 42, 64, 65, 313, 938 BMI, 126, 204, 216, 310, 313 weight loss, 204, 209, 212, 219, 311, 313, body fat content, 126 370 carbohydrate intake and, 65, 275, 307, weight maintenance, 202-209, 216-219, 310-319, 769 382-383, 384, 732 and CHD risk, 130, 815 weight regain following weight loss, 135 children, 65, 130, 134, 140, 153, 216-219, Observational studies. See also 307, 310, 312-313, 459, 811, 814, 923, Epidemiological studies 1168-1179, 1200, 1202 methodological issues, 40, 41-42, 94 children of obese parents, 133 Oleic acid, 426, 431, 432-433, 436, 439, 442, and diabetes type 2, 802, 803 455, 483, 486, 495, 819 DLW database, 153, 156-157, 202 Oligofructose (dietary or functional fiber), energy density of foods and, 794-796 353-354, 390, 391, 396-397 and energy expenditure, 111, 122-123, Oligosaccharides (dietary or functional 133-135, 138, 140, 209, 212, 216-219 fiber), 265, 272, 341, 342, 344, 592 energy intakes, 54, 65, 111, 307, 310, Olive oil, 55 312, 313, 322, 794 Opthalmologic effects, 711, 714, 720, 722, and energy requirements, 110, 132-133, 729, 734, 735, 736 135, 138, 202-213, 216-219

1307 I NDEX Oral and pharynx cancer, 844 and chronic disease prevention, 912-917 Oral contraceptives, 921 climate and, 147, 148 Ornithine, 697 cycling, 184, 190, 895 Osteoarthritis, 236-237 daily living activities, 886, 895, 898-899, Osteoporosis, 841, 928 902-903 Ovarian cancer, 56, 379 data limitations, 180 Oxaloacetate, 604, 701 defined, 179, 881 Oxysterols, 545-546 and diabetes mellitus type 2, 63-64 DLW studies, 880, 881, 911 duration, 138, 139, 183, 884, 918, 920- P 921 elderly individuals, 138, 922 Palmitic acid, 58, 425, 431, 432, 483 energy expenditure of, 115-116, 117, Palmitoleic acid, 426, 486 133, 138-140, 141, 143-144, 145-146, Pampas indigenous people, 275 147, 183, 190, 209, 212, 884-913 Pancreatic and energy requirements, 38, 138-140, cancer, 57 157-161, 166, 171, 174, 175, 176-181, disease, 395 182, 183-184, 190, 197-198 lipase, 429, 431 epidemiological studies, 912-917 Parenteral nutrition, 438, 442, 444, 460, and fat balance, 57, 60, 452 469, 699, 705, 714, 718, 719, 722-723 and fatigue, 920, 921 Pathobiological Determinants of fidgeting, 118-119, 139-140, 902 Atherosclerosis in Youth Study, 815 gender differences, 140-141, 182 Pectins (dietary and/or functional fiber), genetic influences, 145 63, 346, 348, 352, 356-357, 365, 366, and glucose metabolism, 60 369, 371, 382, 388, 390, 391, 394, glycemic index and, 318-319 397-398 and growth and development, 922-923 Phenylalanine (indispensable), 589, 591, health benefits, 180-181, 912-917 593, 596, 597, 616, 617, 618, 663-665, history of recommendations, 882-883, 913 666, 668, 671-682, 686, 687, 689, 695, and immune function, 57 703, 709, 726, 727-728, 734, 736, insulin response, 60, 62, 63, 303, 803, 1014-1015 921 Phenylketonuria, 619 intensity, 139, 140, 148, 183, 190, 884, Phosphatidylethanolamine, 444 885-886, 904-905, 910, 918-920, 921, Phosphatidylserine, 435, 444 922 Phospholipids, 425, 429, 433, 434 leisure activities, 885, 896-897, 900-901, Phosphorus, 789, 790-791, 812, 813 912-913 Physical activity. See also individual life-stage and lipid balance, 57, 60, 61, 452, 913, groups 917-923 adaptations in, 197, 201, 220, 922 and mental health, 151, 881, 913, 916 adverse effects of excessive activity, 180, metabolic equivalents, 884-887, 888, 896- 926-929 899, 903, 906, 917 age and, 143-144 and mortality rates, 912-917 amino acids and, 918 obese and overweight individuals, 56, 65, and appetite, 884 133, 140, 181, 209, 212, 1168-1182, and BMI, 880, 884 1184-1199 and body fat, 57, 61, 139, 180, 181 and obesity, 56, 65, 784, 923 Canadian recommendations, 883, 913 and PAL, 884-912 and cancer, 56-57 prevention of adverse effects, 928-929 and cardiovascular health, 60-61, 882, protective effects of, 56, 62 887-888, 913, 927 protein requirements, 660-661, 918, 920 and CHD risk, 60, 886-887, 924

1308 INDEX recommended, 4, 56, 880, 882-883, 910, amino acid supplements and, 702, 705- 911-912, 913, 926, 928-929 706 reported, 184 athletes, 115, 138, 139, 180, 918, 924, 925 research recommendations, 225, 829 and body composition, 922, 923, 924 residual effects of, 112, 139 carbohydrate balance and, 64, 318-319, and skeletal health, 66, 180, 928 452, 917-923, 924-925 sleeping, 118 and carbohydrate/electrolyte beverages, special considerations, 660-661 924-925 spontaneous nonexercise activity, 139- and cardiovascular events, 927 140, 146 defined, 881 TEF and, 884, 886, 895 and dehydration, 926-927 trends in, 881-882 duration, 918, 920-921 walking, 115, 116, 140, 158, 161, 183- endurance (aerobic), 61, 138, 140, 143, 184, 190, 881, 889-894, 895, 903, 906- 318, 452, 660, 882, 916, 917, 918, 909, 912, 913, 927 923, 924 and weight control, 209, 452, 888, 908 energy expenditure for, 884, 924 Physical activity level (PAL) excess post-exercise oxygen active lifestyle, 158, 162-163, 895-899, consumption, 112, 139 900-903 female athlete triad, 928 age/aging and, 143 gender differences, 921, 928 BEE and, 887, 888, 895 and growth and development, 180, 922- BMI and, 220, 223, 814, 911 923 and BMR, 115, 902 and hyperthermia, 910, 926-927 body weight and, 116, 184, 889, 891-895 and hypothermia, 927 calculation, 887-889 intensity, 918-920, 921, 922, 925 categories, 157-161, 162-163, 164, 183 and lipid oxidation, 917-923 and chronic disease risk reduction, 914- overuse injuries, 926 917 physical education in schools, 923, 924 defined, 116, 174, 887 pregnancy and, 907, 908-911 DLW studies, 895 recovery from illness and, 922 evaluation of, 118, 180, 895-909 resistance exercise, 223, 661, 925, 928 exercise program, 209 running, 115, 138, 184, 223, 892, 893, gender differences, 903, 904-905 894, 926 and glycemic index of foods, 318 treadmill, 184, 913 impact of activities on, 884-912 and weight, 61, 115-116, 213-215, 452, intensity of physical activity and, 138, 773 184, 887-889, 904-905 Physical fitness low-active lifestyle, 158, 162-163, 183, defined, 179-180, 881 895-899 endurance (aerobic) training and, 923 measurement, 174 intensity of exercise and, 140 reference activity, 889 objectives, 883 RMR and, 917 pregnancy and, 907-908 sedentary, 115, 118-119, 140, 183, 200, resistance exercise and, 925, 928 895-899 and spontaneous physical activity, 139 TEE and, 157-161, 162-163, 164, 884, supplementation of water and nutrients, 887, 906-909 925-926 very active lifestyle, 115, 138, 158-159, Physicians’ Health Study, 827, 828 162-163, 895-899 Phytochemicals, 369, 379, 391, 394, 395, 788 Physical exercise Pima Indians, 134, 146, 804-807 adaptations in program, 928 Pituitary adenomas, 396 age and, 922, 924 Planet Health, 318-319

1309 I NDEX Planning nutrient intakes epidemiological studies, 826-828, 832 AI and, 946, 948 evidence considered for estimating AMDR and, 946, 948-949 requirements, 443-447 carbohydrate, 956-957, 964 excretion, 435 EAR and, 947-948 food sources, 478, 771 energy, 949-956, 963, 964 function, 8, 443, 444-445, 446, 466, 468, fat, 959 469 fiber, 957-958, 964 and glucose metabolism, 833 of groups, 947-949, 952-954 and growth, 444-447, 468, 469, 471 of individuals, 946, 949-952 hazard identification, 487-493 integrated example, 963-964, 965 high-intake diets, 834 polyunsaturated fatty acids, 959-960, 964 and immune function, 443, 487-492, 834 protein and amino acids, 946, 961, 964 and insulin sensitivity, 832-833 RDA and, 946 interaction of n-6 and, 453-454 saturated fatty acids, trans fatty acids, intervention studies (nonclinical), 828, and cholesterol, 960 830-831, 832-833 UL and, 946, 947-948 and learning behavior, 445, 446, 447 Plant sterols, 544 by life stage and gender group, 11, 466- Plasma amino acid response method, 614- 473, 1048-1049 615, 670-671 and lipid profile, 826, 828, 830-831 Poland and United States Collaborative low intake diets, 826-834 Study on Cardiovascular metabolism, 434-435, 439, 445-447, 453- Epidemiology, 484 456, 466 Polydextrose (dietary or functional fiber) n-6:n-3 ratio, 8, 434, 439, 446-447, 454- adverse effects, 398 455, 472, 834 characteristics, 341, 346-347 and neural development and function, laxation, 357 443, 444-445, 446, 466, 468, 469 and lipid concentrations, 357 and obesity, 832 uses, 36 oxidative damage, 493, 832 Polyp Prevention Trial, 374 parenteral nutrition and, 443, 454-455, Polysaccharides, 265, 341, 342, 343, 344, 469 350, 377 protective effects of, 55, 826-834 Polyunsaturated fatty acids, n-3. See also α- randomized controlled clinical trials, Linoleic acid; other individual fatty 446, 828-829 research recommendations, 509, 514 acids absorption, 434 special considerations, 469, 471-472, 494 adverse effects of, 63, 487-494 and stroke risk, 59, 492-493, 827-828, AMDRs, 834-835 829, 834 animal studies, 444-445, 492 supplements, 455, 471-472, 487-491, 492- and bleeding time, 492-493 493, 494, 828, 829, 832, 833 and blood pressure, 829 and total fat, 58 and body fat, 832 trans fatty acid impact, 455-456 and cancer, 54, 55, 833-834 vegetarian diets, 466 and carbohydrate utilization, 832 and vision, 443, 444, 445, 446 and cardiovascular disease, 59, 455 Polyunsaturated fatty acids, n-6. See also and CHD, 59, 62-63, 455, 492, 826-827, Linoleic acid; other specific fatty acids 828-829 absorption, 433 deficiency, 439-440, 443-447, 454-455, adverse effects of overconsumption, 486, 469, 834 825 and diabetes, 494, 832-833 adverse effects of underconsumption, dietary intakes, 478, 959-960, 944, 1048- 821-822 1057

1310 INDEX AIs, 461, 944-945 carbohydrates, 188 AMDRs, 486, 825-826 cervical ripening, 472 and cancer risk, 54, 824-825 CHD risk, 389 and CHD, 59, 434, 798-799, 820-821 derivation of DRIs for, 34, 47-48 deficiency, 8, 438-439, 442, 454-455, 460, DLW studies, 193, 196-197, 290 463, 464, 785 EARs, 34, 47, 290-292, 650-655, 680 and diabetes risk, 821 EERs, 107, 116-117, 185, 188-194, 437 dietary intakes, 442, 478, 944, 959-960 energy metabolism, 47, 185, 188-189, energy contribution, 478, 821 193, 194-195, 197, 290 epidemiological studies, 820-821 fat (dietary), 290, 437 evidence considered for estimating fiber, 353, 388 requirements, 442-443 food supplementation trials, 654 excretion, 434 glucose metabolism, 189-190, 290-291 food sources, 476, 822 growth of maternal and fetal tissues, 92, function, 426-427 190-192, 194-195 and glucose metabolism, 821 insulin resistance, 189, 291 high-intake diets, 823-825 multiparous, 656 and immune function, 439 nitrogen balance studies, 650-653, 654- and inflammatory disorders, 824 655 interaction of n-3 and, 453-454 obesity and overweight, 191 intervention studies, 821 obligatory fetal transfer, 47 by life stage and gender group, 10, 460- physical activity, 190, 197, 907-911, 1164- 466 1165 and lipid peroxidation, 823-824 polyunsaturated fatty acids, 465, 471-472 and lipid profile, 59, 798-799, 820-821, potassium balance, 650-653 822-824 protein, 839 low fat diets and, 785 RDA, 292, 656, 680-681 low intake diets, 820-823 special considerations, 656 metabolism, 8, 433-434, 442, 443, 453- supplements, 654, 656, 726 456, 476 TEE, 116, 193, 197, 290, 1164-1165 n-6:n-3 ratio, 8, 434, 439, 442, 446-447, thermic effect of food, 190 454-455, 472, 834 ULs, 92 parenteral nutrition and, 438, 442, 444, weight, 47-48, 188, 190, 191, 192, 196, 454-455, 460, 464 650, 652, 653, 655, 709, 726, 732, primary, 426 908, 910 requirement, 38 Prolactin, 189, 715 research recommendations, 508-509 Proline (dispensable), 592, 593, 607, 697, special considerations, 461, 463 712, 717, 728-729, 736, 1016-1017 trans fatty acid impact, 455-456 Prospective studies, breast cancer and Potassium, 650-653, 725, 838 dietary fiber, 378 Prealbumin, 609, 610 Prostaglandins, 434, 838 Pregnancy. See also Lactation Prostate cancer, 54, 55, 56, 57, 321, 379, adaptation to, 34, 47, 197, 290, 291, 650 486, 568, 578-579, 808, 819, 825, 833- adolescents, 48, 193, 201-202, 292, 389, 834, 837, 844 465, 471-472, 650-652, 654, 655 Protease, 602 AIs, 34, 47, 388, 465, 471-472 Protective effects α-linoleic acid, 427, 770 amino acids, 680-681, 709, 724, 726, 732, 735 amino acids, 726 animal studies, 709, 726 cancer prevention, 54, 55, 819, 833-834 BMR, 185, 188-191, 291 CLA, 428, 836-838 body composition, 188, 191-192 diabetes type 2, 380-381

1311 I NDEX fiber, 55-56, 59, 63, 322, 339, 348, 363, food supplementation trials, 654 367-368, 369, 372, 374, 375, 376-380 function, 9, 38, 589, 590 Protein. See also Amino acids; Nitrogen gastrointestinal effects, 694 absorption, 114, 599-600, 609 gender difference, 640-641, 643, 644 adaptations to metabolism of, 47, 293, and gluconeogenesis, 278, 284, 287-288, 596, 605, 611, 650, 657, 694 293 adverse effects of, 692-694 and glycemic index of foods, 269 age/aging and, 595, 602, 640-641, 642 and growth, 280-281, 608-609, 654, 683, AIs, 619-621 811, 839-840 allergies, 692 hazard identification, 692-694 AMDR, 15, 769, 844 high-protein diets, 692-694, 712, 841-844 amino acid content, 279, 621, 666, 682, and immune function, 609, 621, 839 685-686 incomplete, 691 and amino acid homeostasis, 595-598 insulin response, 279 assessment of nutritional status, 609-610 intake assessment, 695, 960-961 and birth weight, 840 intestinal losses, 600-601 and blood pressure, 60, 843 and kidney stones, 694, 841-842 and BMR, 598 by life stage and gender group, 12-13, body composition and, 626-629, 644, 843 603, 619-662, 1060-1063, 1074-1075 body reserve, 595-596, 602, 609 and lipid profile, 60, 840, 843 and cancer, 54, 843-844 low-protein diets, 648, 667, 697, 707, catabolism, 278, 284 709, 721, 731-732, 839-840 and CHD, 60 maintenance (homeostasis), 595-597, chemistry, 590-592 598-599, 601-602, 625-627, 630, 632, chronic disease risk, 694 657, 660, 668, 683, 684 climate and, 640-641, 642 metabolism, 597-598, 609, 650, 657, 724 clinical effects of inadequate intake, 608- methods used to estimate requirements, 609 635, 637-639 complete, 691 micronutrient availability, 840, 841 and coronary artery disease, 694, 842-843 nitrogen balance, 9, 279, 287, 611-613, deficiency, 601-602, 608-610, 620, 662, 624-625, 632, 633-644, 650, 654-655, 840 684, 691, 693, 1250-1253 degradation, 602 nitrogen/protein ratio, 684-685 deposition rates, 626-629, 665, 666, 669, and obesity, 694, 843 837 and osteoporosis, 694, 841 dietary intakes, 589, 596, 602-603, 624, oxidation, 109 662, 692, 1060-1063, 1074-1075 physical activity and, 660-661 digestion and digestability, 9, 589, 592, planning diets, 946, 961, 964 599-600, 621, 662, 682-684, 688-690 quality, 14, 60, 589, 608, 611, 621, 643, dose–response assessment, 694 661-662, 682-691, 697, 721, 811, 840 EARs, 12-13, 624-629, 631, 637, 643-644, RDAs, 9, 12-13, 25, 47, 278, 589, 612-613, 646-649, 650-654 629-630, 631-633, 644-645, 649, 656, efficiency of utilization, 666 659, 844, 946 energy contribution, 109, 589, 605, 647, and renal function, 609, 694, 842 648, 771, 1062-1063, 1074-1075 research recommendations, 737 factorial method, 624, 628, 629, 633, risk characterization, 695 657, 658 selection of indicators for estimating FAO/WHO recommendations, 648 requirements, 610-613 fat intake and, 60, 271, 693 special considerations, 621, 656, 660-662 food sources, 48, 280-281, 620, 622-623, sugar intakes and, 790-791 640-641, 643, 691, 771 supplementation, 654, 656, 692, 694, 840

1312 INDEX synthesis, 114, 601-602, 603, 708-709 not established, 107 thermic effect of, 110, 114 replacement with DRIs, 1, 936-937 total, 619-662 uses, 24, 25, 26, 936, 938-939, 944, 946 turnover, 598, 601, 602-603, 611, 650, Recommended Nutrient Intakes (RNIs), 31, 655, 705 936-937 ULs, 692-695 Reference weights and heights urea production, 594, 601, 603, 604-605, and BMI, 35, 36, 124, 125, 126, 127-130 611, 620, 650, 657, 671, 684, 693-694 derivation of earlier values, 982-984 vegetarians, 661-662, 840 and energy requirements, 183 and weight, 644, 647, 650, 652, 653, 654, new, 35, 36, 982 655 use of, 34, 47, 659 Protein digestibility corrected amino acid Renal cancer, 844 score (PDCAAS), 688-690 Renal failure, 842 Protein–energy malnutrition, 608-610, 704, Renal function, 92 839, 840 Reproductive effects, 701, 712, 713, 715 Protein-free diet, 278, 635, 648, 667, 683 Requirement, defined, 21-22, 39 Psyllium (functional fiber), 347, 348, 356, Research recommendations. See also 357-360, 365, 366, 371, 374-375, 388, individual nutrients 398-399, 693-694 adverse effects, 970-971 Puberty/pubertal development amino acids, 737-738 age at onset, 33, 983 approach to setting, 968 developmental changes, 177 body composition and size, 225, 240 growth spurt, 142 carbohydrates, 323-324 racial/ethnic differences, 33 cholesterol, 574-575, 578 Purine nucleotide cycle, 604, 605 chronic disease relationships to intakes, Pyrimidine nucleotides, 620 970 Pyruvate, 604, 605 data and database issues, 969-971 energy, 225, 240, 323-324 fat (total), 324, 505, 514 R fiber, 399-400 major information gaps and, 18, 44, 969- Race/ethnicity. See also African Americans; 971 Caucasians methodology, 969-970 and BMR, 146 monounsaturated fatty acids, 505 and energy expenditure, 145-146 physical activity, 225, 829 and pubertal development polyunsaturated fatty acids, 508-509, 514 and reporting of dietary intakes, 117 priorities, 18, 971 Raffinose, 265, 342 protein, 737 Randomized clinical trials, 42-43, 828-829 requirements, 969 Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA) saturated fatty acids, 505 AIs compared, 6, 26-27 trans fatty acids, 514 coefficient of variation, 24-25, 47, 285, Resistant dextrins (dietary or functional 289, 292, 293, 630, 632-633, 645, 656, fiber), 341, 347, 360 670, 679, 682 Resistant starch (dietary or functional criteria used to derive, 6 fiber), 268, 342, 344, 347, 348, 360- defined, 3, 22, 23, 24, 285, 289-290, 292, 361, 366, 371, 376-377, 378, 382, 384, 293, 629 390, 399 derivation, 285, 629-630, 633, 644-645, Respiratory quotient (RQ), 109, 119-120, 649, 656, 679, 682 189, 196, 279, 291, 832 EAR and, 23, 24 Resting energy expenditure (REE), 112, method used to set, 24-25, 34, 47, 981- 114, 128, 133, 141, 212 982

1313 I NDEX Resting metabolic rate (RMR) energy contribution, 474, 835, 1072- aging and, 143 1073, 1226-1227 body composition and size and, 131, evidence considered for estimating 135, 138, 144 requirements, 441, 460 energy expenditure, 112, 131, 132, 141, excretion, 432 148, 165 food sources, 424, 425, 474, 475-476, FFM and, 113, 139 771, 835, 836 gender differences, 141 function, 4, 422, 425, 432, 460, 484-485 lactation and, 195 and glucose tolerance, 484, 485 menstrual cycle and, 141 hazard identification, 481-485 weight and, 113, 133, 135 high-intake diets, 836 Retinol, 792-793 and insulin sensitivity, 62, 484-485, 806 Retinol binding protein, 609, 610 by life stage and gender group, 1042- Rheumatoid arthritis, 487, 722, 824 1043, 1072-1073 Riboflavin, 790-791, 835, 840, 1228-1243 and lipid profile, 422, 432, 481-484, 560, Risk assessment models. See also UL 561, 809, 835 modeling low intake diets, 835 application to nutrients, 27, 91-94 metabolism, 4, 432 basic concepts, 86-87 and micronutrient intakes, 835 bioavailability considerations, 93-94, 98 and mortality incidence, 484 defined, 86, 976 in nonvegetarian diets, 1076 environmental chemicals vs. nutrients, 91 and obesity, 484 EPA guidelines, 1246 properties, 424 and food safety, 86-90, 104 reducing intakes, 836 limitations, 100 research recommendations, 505 nutrient–nutrient interactions, 93 and total fat, 58, 424 process, 87-89, 97-98 in vegetarian diets, 835, 1076 sensitivity of individuals, 89, 92-93, 97-98, Schizophrenia, 720 100, 101 Scottish Heart Health Study, 316-317, 318- thresholds, 89-90 319, 790-793 uncertainties, 86, 87, 91-92, 100, 1244- Selenium, 444 1249 Sensitive subpopulations. See also Special Risk characterization, 86, 89, 90, 976 considerations Risk management, 87, 89, 104, 976 identification of, 97-98 Septicemia, 609, 705 Serine (dispensable), 591, 593, 594, 597, S 604, 608, 711, 719, 729-730, 736, 1018-1019 Satiety, 65, 313, 348, 382-384, 388, 794, 795, Serotonin, 608, 706, 731, 732, 916 796, 843 Seven Countries Study, 562, 817, 826, 827 Saturated fatty acids. See also individual fatty Seventh Day Adventists, 363, 835 acids Skeletal health, physical activity and, 66 absorption, 431-432 Skin cancer, 837 adverse effects of overconsumption, 481- Sleeping metabolic rate (SMR), 112, 118, 485 140, 147, 165, 195 and BMI, 484 Snack foods, 118, 732-733 and cancer, 484 Socioeconomic status, and reporting of and CHD risk, 422, 481-484, 797, 798, dietary intakes, 117 799 Sodium, 725 and diabetes (type 2) risk, 484-485 Soft drinks, 312-313, 789 dietary intake, 474, 960, 1042-1043, Soldiers, 148, 223 1072-1073, 1076-1077, 1226-1227

1314 INDEX Somnolence, 698, 700, 722, 733 Sucrase, 272, 592 Sorbitol, 266 Sucrose, 109, 266, 272, 274, 283, 294, 295, Special considerations. See also individual 297, 298-301, 302, 303, 311, 319, 345 Sugar, 323 nutrients and life-stage groups athletes, 221-223, 660-661 added, 16, 65, 118, 266-267, 294, 295, chronic diseases, 494 303, 312, 314-315, 318-319, 323, 770, disabled individuals, 30, 660 788-789, 790-793, 810, 812-813, 816, dose–response assessment, 100, 101 957, 988-991, 1203-1225 drug interactions, 494 adverse effects of, 295, 319-321 identification of, 92, 102 alcohols, 266, 341, 342 infant formula, 45, 283, 457, 461, 463, behavioral effects, 295-296, 323 469, 621 and BMI, 65, 310, 313, 316-319 irritable bowel syndrome, 395 and cancer risk, 55, 319-320, 321, 323 linoleic acid:α-linoleic acid ratio, 472 and CHD risk, 303, 800-801 low carbohydrate diets, 293 definition, 266-267 muscle wasting diseases, 660 and dental caries, 61-62, 296-297, 323 negative energy balance, 213-215 and diabetes type 2, 303 overweight and obesity, 202-213, 216-219 dietary intakes, 118, 266, 294-295, 323, phenylketonuria, 728 988-991, 1206-1209, 1216-1219 physical activity, 660-661 digestion, 272 twin pregnancy, 656 energy intake from, 65, 118, 273, 307, undernutrition, 220, 221 310, 313, 314-315, 770 vegetarians, 661-662 epidemiological studies, 800-801 weight maintenance, 202-204, 216-219 extrinsic, 266, 297, 812 weight reduction, 209, 212, 213-215, food sources, 266-267, 294, 312-313 219 glycemic index, 323 weight restoration, 220-221 in high fat, low carbohydrate diets, 810 Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor and insulin sensitivity, 303 Intervention Project, 811 intake assessment, 323 Specific Dynamic Action. See Thermic effect intestinal absorption, 273 of food intrinsic, 265 Stachyose, 265, 342 lipogenicity, 59, 297-302, 323 Starch. See also Resistant starch in low fat, high carbohydrate diets, 788- and cancer risk, 321 789, 790-793 definition, 267-268 maximal intake levels, 16, 810, 816 and dental caries, 296 and micronutrient intake levels, 788-789, digestion and digestibility, 269, 272 790-793, 809, 812, 1203-1225 energy yields, 109 and obesity, 307, 310-313, 314-319, 323 food sources, 265-266, 294 substitutes, 346, 695, 702-703, 727 glycemic index, 323 total, 313, 314-315, 316-317, 789, 792, insulin sensitivity, 303 809, 813-814 lipogenesis, 59, 298-301, 302 uses, 266 slow release vs. fast release, 382 Sugar beet fiber, 383, 394, 838 Starvation, 276, 277-279, 284, 430, 437, 595, Supplements, dietary. See also individual 605, 609, 693, 704 nutrients Stearic acid, 58, 425, 431, 432, 483-484 bioavailability considerations, 29, 93, 94 Sterol-coenzyme A desaturase, 837 chronic consumption, 719, 727 Sterol regulatory element-binding protein, clinical trials, 27-28, 85 545, 562 data sources on intakes, 941 Stroke, 59, 230-231, 492-493, 827-828 fiber, 345 Stunting, 221, 701 impurities in, 733

1315 I NDEX intake assessment, 88-89, 104 offsetting benefits reduction, 103 physical exercise and, 925-926 supplement use and, 27, 85, 88-89, 91-92 ULs and, 27, 85, 91-92, 104 uses, 27, 84, 85, 936, 940, 945, 947-948 Total energy expenditure (TEE). See also Energy expenditure T approach used to determine, 151-164, 202-203 Tarahumara Indians, 546, 561 body composition and size and, 132 Taste and smell acuity, 722 coefficients and standard errors, 1200- Taurine, 608 1202 Teratogens, 708, 728 components of, 112-116 Testosterone, 543 data analysis and assumptions for Thermic effect of food (TEF). See also equations, 154-157 individual nutrients defined, 116 age/aging and, 134, 143, 165, 171, 179 DLW data, 116, 117, 119-121, 122-123, alcohol, 109-110 138-139, 141, 151-157, 166, 174, 193, defined, 109-110, 114 198-199, 201, 291, 1104-1202 and energy expenditure, 114, 115, 116, EEPA, 115-116, 117, 133, 138-140, 143- 150, 165, 171 144, 145-146, 147-148 and energy requirements, 165, 171, 190, EER derivation, 149-150, 166, 168-169, 196-197 174, 176, 181, 183, 186, 193-195, 201, fat, 114 202-203, 208 infants, 165 equations for normal-weight children, lactation and, 196-197 161-164, 1200 obesity and overweight and, 133-134, 143 factorial approach, 116, 118-119 pregnancy and, 190 gender differences, 166, 174, 202-203, protein, 110, 114 204, 206-213, 217, 218-219 Thermoregulation, 114, 116, 165-166 menstrual cycle and, 141 Thiamin, 790-791, 1228-1243 for obese and overweight individuals, Threonine (indispensable), 589, 591, 593, 133, 153, 156-157, 202-204, 209-213, 597, 601, 604, 615, 618, 661, 663-665, 1168-1182, 1184-1199, 1201-1202 666, 668, 671-682, 683, 686, 687, 689, PAL categories, 116, 157-161, 162-163, 692, 723, 730-731, 736, 1020-1021 164, 1122-1199 Threonine dehydrogenase, 678 regression on variables, 159-161, 164, Thrombosis, 427 214 Thromboxanes, 434, 454, 826 reported energy intake and, 117-118 Thyroid hormones, 608 RMR and, 132, 148 Thyroid stimulating hormone, 715 TEF and, 116 Toddlers, ages 1 through 3 years. See underfeeding studies, 213-215 Children uses, 951 Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs). See whole-body calorimetry measurements, also UL modeling 120, 122-123, 140 applicable population, 84, 89 Toxicity criteria and proposed values, 12-13 age and sensitivity to, 92 defined, 3, 22, 23, 27-28, 84, 99 mechanisms of action, 97 derivation of, 27, 85-86, 90, 96, 98, 101, Trans fatty acids 102 absorption, 436 extrapolation on body-weight basis, 34, adverse effects of, 436, 455-456, 494-505 47, 85, 86, 101 and blood pressure, 504, 506-509 fortification of foods and, 27, 85 and cancer, 512-515 not established for macronutrients, 101- and cardiovascular disease, 503 104, 107, 224, 694, 770, 940, 946

1316 INDEX and cerebrovascular disease, 503 monounsaturated fatty acid intake and, and CHD risk, 58, 423, 504, 510-513 817-818 controlled feeding trials, 496-499 physical exercise and, 60 dietary intakes, 436, 479, 835, 960 polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 59, 820, energy contribution, 479, 480 821, 822-823, 826, 828, 830-831 epidemiological studies, 510-515 protein intake and, 60, 843 evidence considered for estimating sugar intake and, 297-301 requirements, 447, 473 synthesis, 431, 432, 439 excretion, 437 very low density lipoprotein, 430, 431, 439 and fetal and infant growth, 436, 455 Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, 274 food sources, 48, 427-428, 436, 455, 479, Triceps skinfold measurements, 125, 128, 480, 495, 836 1080-1081, 1086-1087, 1092-1093, free-living trials, 500-503 1100-1101 function, 427-428 Trisaccharides, 272 hazard identification, 494-504 Trypsin, 599 and hemostatic factors, 504, 506-509 Tryptophan (indispensable), 589, 591, 593, high-intake diets, 836 608, 616, 663-665, 666, 668, 672-675, and LDL oxidation, 504, 506-509 677, 678, 679-682, 686, 687, 689, 692, and lipid profile, 58, 423, 494-503, 504 704, 705, 706, 707, 709, 710, 726, low-intake diets, 835 731-734, 736, 1022-1023 and Lp(a), 496-503, 510-511 24-Hour amino acid balance method, 616- measuring intakes, 436 617, 670-671, 676, 677 metabolism, 436-437 2000 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 124, 267 and polyunsaturated fatty acid Typhoid vaccine, 488-489, 491 metabolism metabolism, 455-456 Tyrosine (conditionally indispensable), 589, properties, 424, 427 591, 593, 594, 597, 608, 617, 619, reducing intakes, 836 663-665, 666, 668, 671-682, 686, 687, research recommendations, 514 689, 703, 704, 707, 709, 710, 726, transport, 436 727, 734-736, 1024-1025 Transamination, 604, 704, 712 Tyrosinemia II, 735 Transferrin, 609, 610 Trauma, 596, 605 U Trehalose, 266 Triacylglycerol or triacylglyceride. See also Ubiquitin-protease system, 602 Fat, total; Lipids and lipid UCP1 gene, 145 metabolism UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey of amino acid intake and, 724 Children, 314-315, 790-791 carbohydrate intakes and, 59, 275, 783 UL modeling. See also Dose–response and CHD risk, 57-58, 59, 437 assessment; Risk assessment models fat intake and, 777-781 critical endpoint, 93, 98, 99, 101, 102 fiber intake and, 60, 351, 354, 356, 357, data selection, 98 359, 360, 361, 367-368, 369 hazard identification, 94-98 food sources, 473 mathematical models, 85-86 gluconeogenesis, 275, 278 nutrient intake assessment, 104 glycemic index and, 302, 322 risk characterization, 86, 89, 90, 104-105 glycerol content, 278, 279 uncertainty assessment, 89, 98, 100-101 hydrolysis of, 429 Ulcerative colitis, 348, 371 lipoprotein metabolism and, 61, 278 Uncertainties low fat, high carbohydrate diets and, in AIs, 26, 44 777-781 amino acid scoring patterns, 688 lypolysis, 431 approaches for dealing with, 1244-1249

1317 I NDEX V assessment, 89, 98, 100-101 case-by-case judgments, 1246-1247, 1248- Vaccenic acid, 426, 428 1249 Valine (indispensable), 589, 591, 593, 597, in data, 86, 99, 1246 663-665, 666, 668, 672-675, 677, 678, default options, 1246, 1248-1249 679-682, 686, 687, 689, 704-711, 726, dose–response assessment, 98, 100-101 736, 1026-1027 in exposure routes, 98 Vegetables. See Fruits and vegetables extrapolation from one age group to Vegetarians, 372, 466, 661-662, 835, 975, another, 101 1077 range of estimates applied to, 1246, Very low density lipoprotein (VLDL), 61, 1248-1249 430, 439, 545 in risk assessment, 86, 87, 91-92, 100- remnant, 431, 544 101, 102-103, 1244-1249 Vision, 439, 440, 468, 711, 714, 720, 722, Uncertainty factors 729 defined, 90, 977 Vitamin A, 424, 609, 785, 788, 789, 790-793, for energy intake, 224 811, 812, 813, 1204-1211, 1214-1221, inferences from experimental animal 1224-1225 studies, 100, 1245-1246 Vitamin B6, 771, 785, 788, 789, 790-793, LOAEL instead of NOAEL, 100-101 1228-1243 selection of, 87, 99, 100 Vitamin B12, 771, 785, 789, 790-791, 813, sensitivity of individuals, 100 835, 1228-1243 sources of uncertainty in, 100-101 Vitamin C, 771, 788, 789, 790-791, 808, 813, subchronic NOAEL to predict chronic 816, 1228-1243 NOAEL, 101 Vitamin D, 424, 790-791, 811, 812, 840, 841 use, 90, 91 Vitamin E, 424, 444, 493, 785, 789, 790-793, Undernutrition, 130, 220 811, 812, 813, 829, 1204-1211, 1214- Underweight, 121, 130, 190, 811 1221, 1224-1225 United Kingdom Department of Health, 266 Vitamin K, 424, 788 United Nations University, 621, 634 VLDL cholesterol, 843 United States fiber definitions, 340 human milk intake and composition, W 172-173 physical activity recommendations, 882- Waist circumference, 124-125, 127, 1080- 883 1081, 1084-1085, 1094-1099, 1102- Urea, 114, 594, 601, 603, 604-605, 611, 620, 1103 650, 657, 671, 684, 693-694, 699, 712 Water Uric acid, 603, 604 and laxation, 370, 398 Urinary C-peptide, 322, 353, 361 physical exercise and, 925-926 U.S. Department of Agriculture, 49, 124, Weight. See also Obesity and overweight; 266, 294, 344, 346, 391, 479, 771, 882 Reference weights and heights; U.S. Department of Health and Human Underweight; individual life-stage Services groups dietary intake survey data, 49 adaptation, 150 Office of Disease Prevention and Health adjustment of DRIs based on, 34 Promotion, 1 adults, 143, 183, 184, 220, 1078-1081, 2000 Dietary Guidelines, 124, 882-883 1088-1091 U.S. Department of Health, Education, and age/aging and, 143, 167 Welfare, 882 amino acids and, 697, 698, 700, 707, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 709, 713, 721, 724, 730, 731-732, 734 1246

1318 INDEX BEE and, 116, 141, 150, 183, 184, 186, Whites. See Caucasians 206-213, 888 Whole-body calorimetry, 120, 122-123 BMI and, 1080-1081 Women. See also Gender differences; body fat and, 1090-1091 Lactation; Pregnancy and chronic disease, 224, 226-229 bone mineral density, 841, 928 and diabetes type 2, 802 calcium, 789, 841 energy balance and, 65, 150, 212, 214, carbohydrate intakes compared to other 220 nutrients, 1238-1243 and energy expenditure, 116, 132, 135, CHD, 363, 364 141, 150, 157, 159-161, 183, 184, 186, colon cancer, 373 206-213, 215, 216-219, 889, 891-895, diabetes type 2, 380, 381 951 energy expenditure, 140 energy intake and, 121, 223-224, 793- fiber, 363, 364, 373, 380, 381 794, 951-952 glycemic load, 303 and energy requirements, 112, 183, 184, menopause, 141, 143, 921 220 metabolic rate, 140, 141 epidemiological studies, 382-383 nutrient intakes with added sugars, fat intake and, 441, 452, 773-776, 809 1218-1225 fiber intake and, 65, 339, 351-352, 370, oral contraceptives, 921 382-384 physical activity, 138, 140, 894, 913, 921, gain, 47-48, 110, 121, 143, 144, 167, 186, 928 223-224, 226-229, 452, 650, 652, 653, premenopausal, 140, 141 654, 655, 697, 698, 709, 730-732, 734, protein intakes, 695, 841 802, 951-952 reference weights and heights, 126 gender differences, 1078-1081, 1088- weight control, 352, 773 1091 Women’s Health Initiative Observational genetic factors, 144, 452 Study, 913 hypocaloric vs. isocaloric diets, 772 World Cancer Research Fund, 321 intervention studies, 311, 383-384 World Health Organization, 84, 110, 121, loss, 61, 65, 121, 199-200, 204, 209, 212, 621, 634, 648, 684, 913 215, 217, 219, 225, 311, 313, 351-352, 370, 383, 721, 843, 951 X low fat, high carbohydrate diets, 311, 773-777 Xylose, 345 maintenance, 149, 202-209, 216-219, 382-383, 441, 773-777, 951-952 measurement confounding, 202-204 Y metabolic rate and, 112, 113, 135, 138 overeating and, 121, 151 Youth Risk Behavior Study, 923 physical exercise and, 61, 115-116, 213- 215, 452, 773 Z pregnancy, 47-48, 188, 190, 191, 192, 196, 650, 652, 653, 655, 709 Zinc, 221, 391, 394, 397-398, 705, 721-723, protein (nitrogen) and, 598, 612, 843 771, 785, 789, 790-793, 812, 813-814, rapid loss, 217 840, 1204-1209, 1212-1219, 1222- recommended, 117 1225, 1228-1243 regain after loss, 135 Zutphen Elderly Study, 381, 483, 826, 827 restoration, 220-221 stabilization, 138 and TEE, 159-161 velocity, 142

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Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids Get This Book
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Responding to the expansion of scientific knowledge about the roles of nutrients in human health, the Institute of Medicine has developed a new approach to establish Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDAs) and other nutrient reference values. The new title for these values Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs), is the inclusive name being given to this new approach. These are quantitative estimates of nutrient intakes applicable to healthy individuals in the United States and Canada. This new book is part of a series of books presenting dietary reference values for the intakes of nutrients. It establishes recommendations for energy, carbohydrate, fiber, fat, fatty acids, cholesterol, protein, and amino acids. This book presents new approaches and findings which include the following:

  • The establishment of Estimated Energy Requirements at four levels of energy expenditure
  • Recommendations for levels of physical activity to decrease risk of chronic disease
  • The establishment of RDAs for dietary carbohydrate and protein
  • The development of the definitions of Dietary Fiber, Functional Fiber, and Total Fiber
  • The establishment of Adequate Intakes (AI) for Total Fiber
  • The establishment of AIs for linolenic and a-linolenic acids
  • Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution Ranges as a percent of energy intake for fat, carbohydrate, linolenic and a-linolenic acids, and protein
  • Research recommendations for information needed to advance understanding of macronutrient requirements and the adverse effects associated with intake of higher amounts

Also detailed are recommendations for both physical activity and energy expenditure to maintain health and decrease the risk of disease.

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