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OCR for page 1275
Index
A defined, 3, 22, 26
derivation of, 28, 31, 32, 47
Absorption of nutrients. See Bioavailability; extrapolation between other age groups,
Intestinal absorption; individual 26-27, 31-32, 34, 46, 47, 283
nutrients indicators used to set, 28
Acceptable Macronutrient Distribution methods used to set, 44-46, 47, 280-283,
Ranges (AMDRs). See also individual 385-390, 456-457, 460-461, 464, 465,
nutrients and life-stage groups 466-470, 471-472, 619-621, 662-665
defined, 14-15, 28, 39, 772, 941 prevalence of intakes above, 789
evidence considered for, 15-16, 769 RDA compared, 6, 26-27
rationale for, 14, 28, 784 uncertainty in, 26, 44
uses, 29, 941, 945, 946, 948-949 uses, 26, 936, 939-940, 944-945, 946, 948
Adaptation, nutritional Adiposity, 125, 130, 189, 200, 220, 379, 832.
amino acid metabolism, 618, 619 See also Body fat content
basal metabolism, 201 Adolescents, ages 9 through 18 years. See
to carbohydrate-free diet, 277-278, 293 also Puberty/pubertal development
defined, 149, 973 added sugars, 1206-1209, 1216-1219
in energy balance, 149-151, 201, 220, ages 9 through 13 years, 35, 386, 463-
223-224, 452 464, 470, 624-627, 631, 665, 673-674,
glucose metabolism, 277-278 769, 1126-1129, 1138-1143, 1172-
growth impairment as, 151, 220, 437 1173, 1178-1181, 1206-1207, 1216-
to high-fat diets, 452 1217, 1232-1233, 1238-1239
pregnancy and lactation, 34, 47, 197, ages 14 through 18 years, 35, 193, 201-
290, 291, 650 202, 292, 293, 386, 389-390, 463-464,
to protein metabolism, 47, 276, 279, 465-466, 470, 471-472, 674-675, 729,
605, 611, 650, 657, 694 769, 1128-1129, 1143-1145, 1181-
to starvation, 277-279, 605 1183, 1208-1209, 1218-1219, 1232-
weight as, 150 1233, 1238-1239
Adequate Intakes (AIs). See also individual AIs, 26-27, 33, 385-386, 388-389, 463-464,
macronutrients and life-stage groups 470, 471-472, 632-633
criteria used to derive, 7-8, 10-11, 44-46 AMDRs, 769, 816, 844, 945
1275
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1276 INDEX
amino acids, 664-670, 673-675, 702-703 saturated fatty acids, 474, 835, 1232-
aortic fatty streaks, 815 1233, 1238-1239
aspartame, 702-703 special considerations, 216-219
BMR, 178-179 sugar intakes, 312, 323, 1206-1209, 1216-
body composition and size, 142, 178, 1219
181, 626-629 TEE, 176, 178, 181, 1126-1129, 1138-
bone mineralization, density, and mass, 1145, 1172-1173, 1178-1183, 1200,
66, 180 1202
brain development, 288-289 trans fatty acids, 456
carbohydrate, 284-285, 292, 1232-1233, vitamin and mineral intakes, 1232-1233,
1238-1239 1238-1239
EARs, 33, 46-47, 284, 292, 293, 632, 664- weight, 216-219, 650, 652, 653, 655
669, 673-675 Adults, ages 19 years and older. See also
EERs, 175, 176-182, 193, 201-202, 216- Age/aging; Lactation; Pregnancy
219 added sugars, 295, 788-789, 1210-1215,
energy intakes, 473, 474, 1206-1209, 1220-1225
1216-1219, 1232-1233, 1238-1239 ages 19 through 50 years, 35, 46, 184,
extrapolation of data from adult values, 186-189, 205-213, 286, 288, 292, 293,
26-27 296, 323, 371, 388, 389, 447, 450-452,
factorial methods, 628, 631 464, 471-472, 548, 614, 633-645, 648,
fat (total dietary), 459, 945, 1232-1233, 695, 887, 983-984, 701, 703, 720, 727,
1238-1239 729, 730, 1146-1159, 1164-1167,
fatty acids, 456, 1232-1233, 1238-1239 1184-1187, 1190-1195, 1210-1211,
fiber, 385-386, 388-389, 391, 394, 1232- 1220-1223, 1234-1235, 1240-1241
1233, 1238-1239 ages 51 years and older, 33-34, 66, 138,
glucose metabolism, 288-289 143-144, 289, 296, 303, 358, 371, 388,
growth and development, 33, 142, 175, 396, 398, 447, 450-452, 464, 548-549,
177, 181, 182, 459, 654 602, 603, 608, 634, 660, 661, 697,
lactation, 293, 389-390, 465-466, 471-472, 704, 711, 723, 725, 734, 736-737, 841,
659 887, 922, 1150-1153, 1158-1163,
maintenance requirement, 667 1186-1191, 1194-1199, 1214-1215,
nitrogen balance studies, 624-627, 632, 1224-1225, 1236-1237, 1242-1243
664-666 AIs, 26, 33-34, 387-388, 464-466, 470-472
nutrient intakes with added sugars, allergies, 692
1206-1209, 1216-1219 AMDRs, 285, 769, 809, 826, 844, 941
obese or overweight, 181, 216-219, 312, amino acids, 594, 599, 607, 613, 614,
459, 1172-1173, 1178-1183, 1200, 668, 669, 670-680, 686-688, 690-691,
1202 692, 703, 720, 726
physical activity, 176-181, 182, 880, 883, bioavailability of nutrients, 34
902-907, 911-912, 924, 1126-1129, BMI, 35, 36, 121, 124-130, 131, 310,
1138-1145, 1172-1173, 1178-1183 1078-1087, 1098-1103
polyunsaturated fatty acids, 463-464, 465- body composition data, 1078-1103
466, 469-470, 471-472 body fat content, 111, 124-125, 126, 128-
pregnancy, 48, 193, 201-202, 292, 389, 130, 131, 1078-1101
465, 471-472, 650-652, 654-655 bone mineral density, 66
protein, 624-629, 631, 632-633, 665, 670, brain utilization of glucose, 285-289
769 carbohydrates, 265, 277, 285-289, 294-
RDAs, 285, 292, 293, 631-632, 655, 670, 295, 769, 809, 1234-1237, 1240-1243
673-675 catabolic stress, 594
reference weights and heights, 35, 136- CHD risk, 303, 366, 387-388, 777-784,
137, 176, 178, 659, 670, 983 797-798
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1277
I NDEX
cholesterol, 548-549 special considerations, 202-213, 220
dental caries, 296 sugar intakes, 323, 789, 792, 1210-1213,
diabetes (type 2), 268, 388, 784-785 1220-1225
dietary intakes, 294-295, 602, 695, 697, TEE, 161-164, 183, 203, 1146-1165, 1184-
1234-1237, 1240-1243 1199, 1200-1201
EARs, 33, 34, 46-47, 285-289, 292, 293, vitamin and mineral intakes, 1234-1237,
633, 643-644, 646-649, 668, 670-679 1240-1243
EERs, 121, 124-130, 183-189 weight and height, 143, 183, 184, 220,
energy expenditure, 108, 116, 122-123, 1078-1081, 1088-1091
131, 138, 140-141, 143-144 weight maintenance, 773-777
energy intakes, 474, 647, 1234-1237, Adverse effects. See also individual nutrients
1240-1243 defined, 84, 973
energy metabolism, 33, 54, 108, 116, 289 insufficient evidence of, 102-103, 970-
extrapolation of data to infants and 971
children, 25, 26-27, 34, 46, 47, 284 nutrient–nutrient interactions, 85, 95
fat (dietary), 459-460, 769, 809, 1234- Aerobics Center Longitudinal Study, 912
1237, 1240-1243 African Americans
fiber, 354, 358, 366, 387-389, 396, 398, breast cancer, 379
788, 809, 1234-1237, 1240-1243 energy expenditure, 145-146, 179
glucose metabolism, 285-289, 388, 784- fiber, 379
785 pubertal development, 33
high fat, low carbohydrate diets, 792-810 Age/aging. See also Adolescents; Adults;
hyperinsulinemia, 784-785 Children; Infants; Life-stage groups
low fat, high carbohydrate diets, 772-792 BMR, 131, 143
malnutrition, 608 carbohydrate–lipid oxidation balance,
methodological considerations, 47-48 922
monounsaturated fatty acids, 432 energy expenditure, 117, 143-144, 157,
nitrogen balance studies, 275, 287, 618, 158, 159-161, 181, 183
633-643, 661 and energy requirements, 183, 647
nutrient intakes with sugars, 1210-1215, fat absorption, 447, 450-452
1220-1225 glucose metabolism, 289
obese and overweight, 122-123, 792-797, insulin resistance, 62
1184-1199, 1201 physical activity, 143-144, 922, 924
peak bone mass, 33 and protein reserve, 595, 602, 640-641,
physical activity, 66, 138, 143-144, 183- 642
184, 186-189, 883, 895-903, 911-912, reporting of dietary intakes, 117
1184-1199 RMR, 143
polyunsaturated fatty acids, 433, 435, sensitivity to nutrient toxicity, 92
464, 470-472, 478 and sugar intakes, 323
protein, 287-288, 595, 602, 605, 608, TEF, 134, 143, 165, 171, 179
611-612, 633-649, 660, 661, 668, 686- weight gain, 143, 167
688, 690-691, 692, 695, 769, 841 Alanine (dispensable), 276, 591, 593, 594,
RDAs, 33, 47, 265, 289-290, 292, 293, 596, 597, 604, 605, 606, 696-697, 736,
603, 644-645, 649, 667-669, 679-680 992-993
reference heights and weights, 35, 124, Alaska Natives, 275, 284, 693
125, 126, 128-130, 983-984 Albumin, 304-305, 430, 602, 609, 610
renal function, 34 Alcohol
reserve capacity and functioning, 33-34 dietary intakes, 49, 110, 1064-1065
saturated fatty acids, 474, 835, 1234- energy contribution, 109, 771, 1064-1065
1237, 1240-1243 and fatty acid oxidation, 109, 453
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1278 INDEX
by life stage and gender group, 1064- and brain chemistry, 704-705, 707, 709,
1065 710, 711, 714, 721, 731, 732, 734, 735
oxidation rate, 108-109 branched-chain, 604, 616, 660, 704-711;
TEF, 109-110 See also Isoleucine, Leucine, Valine
Alcoholics and alcoholism, 110, 704 and cancer, 54, 698-699, 700, 708, 710,
Aldosterone, 543 711, 713, 719, 722, 732, 843
Allergic reactions, 295, 396, 397, 399 and carbohydrates, 275, 276, 701, 731,
α-Ketoglutarate, 604, 605 732-733
α-Linoleic acid. See also Polyunsaturated carbon metabolism, 605-607
fatty acids, n-3 catabolism, 278, 594, 603-608, 616, 617,
AIs, 8-9, 11, 423, 466-472, 834, 944-945 704, 712
AMDRs, 15-16, 770, 834-835 and CHD risk, 726
and CHD, 427, 770, 827, 828, 829 chemistry, 590, 592-593
deficiency, 9, 423, 427, 439-440, 443-445, Chinese restaurant syndrome, 714, 715-
470, 472 716
dietary intakes, 478, 834 composition of proteins, 279, 621, 666,
food sources, 478, 771, 834 682, 685-686
function, 423, 427, 435, 445, 466 deficiency, 662
interaction with linoleic acid, 447, 453- deposition rate, 672-675
455, 472, 825 dermal effects, 733-734, 735
and learning behavior, 439, 445 developmental studies, 708-710, 724, 732
metabolism, 434-435, 445-446, 468, 472 diabetes and, 704
parenteral nutrition and, 444 dietary intakes, 692, 696, 697, 700, 701,
protective effects, 427, 770 704, 711, 712, 720, 721, 723, 725,
sources, 427, 447 727, 729, 730, 731, 734, 736, 992-
supplementation, 444 1027
and vision, 439, 440, 468 digestibility, 621
Alpha-Tocopherol, Beta-Carotene Cancer direct amino acid oxidation method,
Prevention Study, 483 615-617, 618, 619, 670-671, 676-678
Altitude, and energy expenditure, 149 dose–response assessment, 697, 699-700,
Amino acids. See also Protein; individual 703, 711, 712, 717, 719, 720, 723,
725, 726, 728, 729, 730, 731, 733-734,
amino acids
absorption, 621 736
adaptations in metabolism, 618, 619 EARs, 589, 619, 664-679, 680-681, 688
adverse effects of, 696, 697-698, 701-703, excretion, 604
705-708, 711-712, 713-717, 720, 721- factorial estimate, 614, 666-669
723, 724-726, 727, 729, 730-733, 734- food sources, 48, 712-713, 714
735 free, 596-597, 599, 602, 603, 620, 692,
AIs, 662-663 721
alcoholism and, 704 function, 9, 38, 589, 590, 696, 697, 701,
animal studies, 671, 696, 697-698, 701- 704-705, 712, 720-721, 725, 729, 731,
702, 703, 705, 707-708, 711-712, 713- 734, 736
714, 720, 721-722, 724, 725-726, 727, and gastrointestinal disturbances, 698,
729, 730-732, 734-735 700, 714, 720, 722, 724, 726, 733
and appetite or eating behavior, 707, genotoxicity, 720
709, 710, 713, 730, 731-732 gluconeogenesis from, 276, 278, 288-
and asthma, 716-717 289, 604, 606
and behavior, 697, 701, 713, 714, 721, and growth, 598, 607, 665, 666, 669, 697,
727, 729 701, 707, 710, 713, 719, 720, 721,
bioavailability, 685 724, 725, 728
and body fat, 713
OCR for page 1279
1279
I NDEX
hazard identification, 696-699, 700, 701- nutritional and metabolic classification,
703, 704-710, 711-717, 718-719, 720, 593-594
721-723, 724-726, 727, 729, 730-733, and obesity, 701, 704, 732
734-735 opthalmologic effects, 711, 714, 720,
and herpes infections, 724 722, 729, 734, 735, 736
high-protein diets and, 712 parenteral nutrition and, 699, 705, 714,
homeostasis, 595-598 718, 719, 722-723
hormonal effects, 715 and physical exercise, 702, 705-706
human studies, 608-699, 702-703, 705- planning and assessing intakes, 961-963
706, 712, 714-715, 720, 722-723, 724- plasma amino acid response method,
725, 726, 727, 729, 730, 731-733, 735 614-615, 670-671
imbalances in, 707, 708-709, 710, 726 precursors of nonprotein products, 608
and immune function, 697-698, 699 protective effects, 726
indicator amino acid oxidation method, quality of protein source, 661, 662, 684-
617-619, 670-671, 676, 677, 678 690, 721
indicators for estimating requirements, RDAs, 47, 672-675, 679-680, 681, 682
613-619 reproductive effects, 701, 712, 713, 715
individual variability in requirements, research recommendations, 737-738
614, 665-666, 679 risk characterization, 737
insulin sensitivity, 696, 701, 705, 710 scoring, 14, 589, 662, 685, 686-691
intake assessment, 736-737 selection of indicators for estimating
interactions with other nutrients, 721- requirements, 613-619
723, 725, 726, 731 and somnolence, 698, 700, 722, 733
by life stage and gender group, 662-682, special considerations, 728
992-1027 and starvation, 693, 704
limiting, 602, 611, 614, 669, 685, 689, supplementation, 695-735
690, 691 synthesis, 275, 701, 712, 717, 723, 729,
and lipid profiles, 721, 724 734
liver function and, 704, 705, 721 and taste and smell acuity, 722
losses, 601, 614 teratogenic effects, 708, 728
low-protein diets, 697, 707, 709, 721, trauma and, 596, 605
731-732 24-hour amino acid balance method,
maintenance, 666, 667-669, 672-675 616-617, 670-671, 676, 677
and malnutrition, 704 ULs, 695-737
maple syrup urine disease, 704, 706 variance in requirements, 688
metabolic disorders, 697, 700, 704, 705, and weight, 697, 698, 700, 707, 709, 713,
706, 710, 714, 727, 728, 735 721, 724, 730, 731-732, 734
metabolic pathways, 597-598, 600, 617, Amino sugars, 684
660, 697, 701, 704, 705, 717, 719, Ammonia, 56, 375, 377, 603, 604, 605, 684,
724, 726, 728-729, 731 697, 714, 717-718, 719
neurological effects, 696, 699, 701-702, Amylopectin, 267-268, 269, 272
703, 704-705, 706, 711, 714, 715, 717, Amylose, 267, 272
718, 719, 727, 728, 733 Animal studies
nitrogen balance studies, 612, 613-614, advantages, 94-95, 97
618, 662, 664-666, 670-671, 676, 677, amino acids, 671, 696, 697-698, 701-702,
678, 688 707-708, 711-712, 713-714, 720, 721-
nitrogen metabolism, 278, 603-605, 718, 722, 724, 725-726, 727, 729, 730-732,
720 734-735
nitrogen utilization through nonprotein carbohydrate, 40, 275
pathways, 607-608 cholesterol, 548, 562
colon cancer, 377
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1280 INDEX
dose-response assessment, 96, 98, 100 carbohydrate, 956-957
extrapolation of data from, 40, 87, 95, cut-point method, 943
97, 98, 100, 101, 492, 562, 1245-1246 EAR and, 938-939, 943-944
fat, 40 energy, 48, 225, 954-956
fiber, 351, 361, 377 fat, 959
hazard identification, 94-95, 96, 696, fiber, 957-958
697-698, 701-702, 707-708, 711-712, of groups, 16-18, 941-945
713-714, 721-722, 724, 725-726, 727, of individuals, 937-941
729, 730-732, 734-735 polyunsaturated fatty acids, 959-960
nitrogen balance studies, 671 probability approach, 942-943, 944
polyunsaturated fatty acids, 444-445, 492 protein, 960-961
pregnant animals, 709, 726 RDA and, 938-939, 944
protein, 40 UL and, 940, 945
relevance of, 39, 40, 94, 96, 703, 705, Asthma, 396, 399, 716-717
711, 727 Atherogenic dyslipidemia, 777
uncertainties in, 100, 1245-1246 Atherogenic lipid profile, 802
Apolipoprotein A-I, 61 Atherogenic lipoprotein phenotype, 777, 782
Apolipoprotein B100, 503 Atherosclerosis, 59, 485-486, 546, 548, 549,
Apolipoprotein CH, 429 560, 562, 563, 823-824, 826, 836-837,
Apolipoprotein E, 544 840
Apoproteins, 429 Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities Study,
Apoptosis, 55, 833, 837-838 563
Appetite, 383, 707, 709, 710, 713, 730, 731- Athletes, 115. See also Physical activity
732, 795 amino acid supplements, 702, 706
Arabinose, 345 endurance training, 660
Arachidonic acid, 425, 426, 433-434, 435, energy balance, 221-223, 452
438, 439, 440, 442, 443, 444, 446-447, high-carbohydrate diet, 452
453-454, 455-456, 465, 469, 472, 476, high-fat diet, 452
478, 824, 838 lipoprotein profile, 61
Arginase, 605 low fat, high carbohydrate diet, 773
Arginine (dispensable), 591, 593, 594, 597, protein, 660-661
605, 608, 697-700, 709, 712, 717, 724, resistance training, 660
736, 994-995 runners, 61, 773
Arginine glutamate, 714 skeletal health, 66
Arginionsuccinic acid synthetase, 697, 700 Autoimmune diseases, 487
Arizona Wheat-bran Fiber Trial, 374
Arteriosclerosis, 130, 842
B
Asians, obese, 352
Asparagine (dispensable), 591, 593, 594, 700
Balance studies. See also Nitrogen balance
Aspartame, 695, 702-703, 727
studies
Aspartic acid/aspartate (dispensable), 591,
cholesterol, 543-544
592, 593, 594, 597, 604, 605, 608,
defined, 40
695, 709, 736, 996-997
limitations of, 40-41, 617, 676
Association of Official Analytical Chemists
methionine, 677
International, 340, 344
24-hour amino acid method, 616-617
Assessment of nutrient intakes
zinc bioavailability, 394
added sugars, 957
Basal energy expenditure (BEE)
AI and, 939-940, 944-945
defined, 112
AMDR and, 941, 945
DLW data, 1104-1202
amino acids, 960-963
fat-free mass and, 128, 186
biochemical approach, 944
gender differences, 141, 217
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1281
I NDEX
and MET rate, 888 defined, 93, 973
obese and overweight individuals, 217 factors affecting, 29-30, 93-94, 271, 281
prediction, 114, 171, 178-179, 186, 205, fat intake and, 424, 785, 788-792
217 fiber consumption and, 29, 94, 348, 351-
Schofield equations, 171, 178-179, 186 352, 369, 382, 391, 394-395, 397-398,
and weight, 116, 141, 150, 183, 184, 186, 838
206-213, 888 in human milk, 431, 447, 621, 944
Basal metabolic rate (BMR), 25 in infant formula, 26, 31, 45, 431, 940,
adaptations, 201 944, 946
adolescents, 178-179 nutrient–nutrient interactions and, 93,
aging and, 131, 143 271, 281, 424
altitude and, 149 and risk assessment, 93-94, 98
body composition and size and, 131, 141 from supplements, 29, 93, 94
and carbohydrates, 196 Biomarkers of disease, 41
children, 141, 171, 1114-1121 Bladder cancer, 708, 710
climate and, 148 Bleeding time, 492-493
defined, 112 Blood pressure. See also Hypertension
and energy expenditure, 112-114, 115, amino acids and, 735
131, 141, 164-165, 171, 178-179, 185, fiber and, 60
188-190, 195 physical activity and, 60
and energy requirement, 164-165, 171, polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 59, 829
178-179, 185, 188-190, 195-196 trans fatty acids and, 504
ethnic differences, 146 weight and, 204
FFM and, 139 Body composition and size. See also Body fat
gender differences, 141 content; Fat-free mass; Fat mass;
infants, 164-165, 1106-1114 Obesity and overweight
lactation, 195-196 adolescents, 142, 178, 181
measurement, 165, 171, 185, 188 adults, 1078-1103
menstrual cycle and, 140, 141 and BMR, 131, 141
pregnancy, 185, 188-191, 291 CLA and, 836-837
protein balance and, 598 and energy expenditure, 65, 112, 117,
sedentary individuals, 115 131-135, 138, 139, 141
Basal requirement, 24 gender differences, 128, 142, 1078-1103
Beans. See Legumes genetic factors, 144, 146
Behavior. See also Eating behavior NHANES III data, 124, 125, 130, 982,
amino acid intake and, 697, 701, 713, 1078-1103
714, 721, 727, 729 pregnancy and, 188, 191-192
breastfed infants, 621 protein deposition, 626-629, 644
learning, 439, 445, 446, 447, 697, 713, 729 and reporting of dietary intakes, 117
polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 439, research recommendations, 225, 240
445, 446, 447 and sensitivity to nutrients, 92
sugar intake and, 295-296, 323 and TEE, 132
Bengal gram, 366-367 undernutrition and, 220
β3-Adrenergic receptor gene, 145 Body fat content. See also Body Mass Index;
β-Glucans (dietary or functional fiber), 345, Fat mass
355-356 adults, 111, 124-125, 126, 128-130, 131,
β-Hydroxybutyrate, 285, 430 1078-1101
Bioavailability of nutrients amino acid intake and, 713
age/aging and, 447, 450-452 bioimpedance data, 124
amino acids, 685 BMI and, 121, 124-125, 126, 128-130,
balance studies and, 394 1080-1087, 1098-1101
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1282 INDEX
and cancer, 379 and triceps skinfold, 1080-1081, 1086-
gender differences, 1078-1101 1087, 1100-1101
height and, 125, 128-130, 1078-1081, waist circumference used with, 124-125,
1088-1089 127, 1080-1081, 1084-1085, 1098-
infants, 142, 621 1099, 1102-1103
obesity, 126 and weight, 1080-1081
physical activity and, 57, 61, 139, 180, Body weight. See Weight
181 Bogalusa Heart Study, 307, 310, 314-315,
protein intake and, 843 792-793, 815
reserves, 111, 220 Bone mineral density, 66, 180, 276, 928
and triceps skinfold, 125, 128, 1080- Brain
1081, 1086-1087, 1092-1093, 1100- amino acids, 704-705, 707, 709, 710, 711,
1101 714, 721, 724, 731, 732, 734, 735
and waist circumference, 1084-1085, carbohydrate utilization, 38, 265, 273,
1094-1099 276, 277, 278, 279, 280, 284, 285-289,
and weight, 1090-1091 430
Body Mass Index (BMI) chemistry, 704-705, 707, 709, 710, 711,
adults, 35, 36, 121, 124-130, 131, 310, 714, 721, 731, 732, 734, 735
1078-1087, 1098-1103 cholesterol synthesis by infants, 545, 548
and body fat content, 121, 124-125, 126, glucose metabolism, 38, 265, 273, 276,
128-130, 1080-1087, 1098-1101 277, 279-280, 285-289
and cancer, 238-239 macronutrients needed by, 771
and CHD, 124, 232-233 pituitary adenomas, 396
children, 35, 36, 65, 130-131, 216, 814, polyunsaturated fatty acid deficiency
1114-1121 and, 444-445, 466, 468
and chronic disease, 224, 226-239, Bran, 350, 353, 355, 356, 359, 367, 368, 371,
303 372, 378, 394, 395, 838
cutoffs, 121, 126 Breast cancer
defined, 121 arginine and, 698-699, 700
and diabetes type 2, 124, 226-229 BMI and, 238-239
fat intake and, 814 case-control studies, 54, 378
fiber consumption and, 352, 379, 383, cholesterol intake and, 568, 574-575
384 conjugated linoleic acid and, 837, 838
gender differences, 125-129, 1078-1087, cross-cultural studies, 54, 377-378
1098-1103 epidemiological studies, 54
glycemic index and, 313 fat intake and, 54, 55, 486, 512-513, 808,
healthy, 121, 124, 126 843
and height, 1080-1081 fiber intake and, 56, 377-380
as indicator of energy requirement, 121, intervention studies, 378-379
124-131 monounsaturated fatty acid intake and,
infants, 1106-1114 819
methodological issues, 121, 124-125 physical activity and, 57
and mortality, 484 polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 825, 833
obesity, 126, 204, 216, 310, 313 prospective studies, 378
PAL and, 220, 223, 814, 911 protein intake and, 843-844
previous median vs. new median, 35 sugar intake and, 319-320
protein intake and, 843 Breastfeeding. See also Human milk; Infants;
reference heights and weights and, 35, Lactation
36, 124, 125, 126, 127-130 and energy expenditure, 165
saturated fatty acid intake and, 484 recommendations, 31, 45, 171, 281, 662
sugar intake and, 65, 310, 313, 316-319 Butyrate, 56, 348, 349, 361, 371, 375
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I NDEX
C adverse effects of overconsumption, 295-
323
Calcium, 281, 391, 394, 431, 592, 789, 790- aging and, 289
793, 811, 812, 813, 835, 838, 840, AIs, 32, 280-283, 944
841, 1204-1211, 1214-1221, 1224- AMDRs, 15, 285, 769, 785, 809, 816
1225, 1228-1243 amino acids and, 275, 276, 701, 731,
Canada 732-733
dietary intake data, 295, 473, 479, 481, animal derived, 342; See also Fiber
692, 1066-1075 and BMR, 196
fiber definitions and guidelines, 340, 349 brain utilization, 38, 265, 273, 276, 277,
Food Guide to Healthy Eating, 771 278, 279, 280, 284, 285-289, 430
human milk intake and composition, Canada, 295, 1068-1069
172-173 and cancer, 55, 319-321
physical activity recommendations, 883 and CHD, 59, 303, 797, 798-799, 800-801
Canadian National Institute of Nutrition, 979 classification, 265-266
Canadian Paediatric Society, 31, 32, 45, 46 clinical effects of inadequate intakes,
Canadian Society of Exercise Physiology, 883 275-276
Cancer. See also individual histological sites compared to other nutrient intakes,
amino acids and, 54, 698-699, 700, 708, 1226-1243
710, 711, 713, 719, 722, 732, 843 and dental caries, 296-297
BMI and, 238-239 and diabetes type 2, 63, 302, 303, 306-
body fat and, 379 307, 785
carbohydrate intake and, 55, 319-321 dietary intakes, 46, 65, 265, 294-295, 770-
cholesterol and, 54, 568, 570-579 771, 943, 944, 1032-1035, 1068-1069,
CLA and, 427 1226-1243
energy intake and, 54 digestion, 272
evidence about dietary factors, 53 EARs, 4, 6, 277-280, 284, 285-289, 290-
fat intake and, 54-55, 375, 376, 484, 486, 293
512-513, 808 energy contribution, 280, 281, 294-295,
fiber intake and, 54, 55-56, 319, 321, 339, 770-771, 813, 1034-1035, 1226-1243
373-380, 396, 398 epidemiological studies, 783, 785, 800-
glycemic index of foods and, 310-311, 801
319, 321 fatty acid synthesis, 275, 277, 433
high fat, low carbohydrate diets and, 808 food sources, 265, 280-281, 294, 771
hormone-related, 56 function, 4, 38, 265
monounsaturated fatty acids and, 55, and growth, 280-281, 922-923
486, 819 hazard identification, 295-321
physical activity and, 56-57 high-carbohydrate diets, 295, 297, 438,
polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 54, 824- 769, 772-792, 795
825, 833-834 in human milk, 281-283, 292
protective effect of nutrients, 54, 55, 819, intake assessment, 323
833-834 intervention studies, 785, 786-787
protein intake and, 54, 843-844 intestinal absorption, 60, 272-273, 281,
sugars and, 54, 55, 319-320, 321, 323 323, 369
Caproic acid, 425 by life stage and gender group, 6, 280-
Caprylic acid, 425 293, 988-991, 1032-1033, 1068-1069
Carbohydrate, dietary. See also Glucose; and lipid oxidation, 917-923
Glycemic index; High fat, low and lipid profile, 275, 277, 278-279, 297-
carbohydrate diets; Low fat, high 303, 781, 782-784
carbohydrate diets; Starch; Sugar; low carbohydrate diets, 293, 430, 784,
individual life-stage groups 792-810
adaptation to starvation, 277-278, 293
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1284 INDEX
malabsorption, 397 Children, ages 1 through 8 years. See also
and mental health, 276 Life-stage groups; Toddlers
metabolism, 38, 64, 190, 196, 273-275, added sugars, 294, 812-813, 816, 1204-
424 1205
and micronutrient inadequacies or AIs, 26-27, 32, 34, 385-386, 463, 469-470
excesses, 812, 816, 1226-1243 allergies, 692
and obesity, 65, 275, 307, 310-319, 769 AMDRs, 769, 816, 826, 844, 941, 945
and physical activity, 64, 318-319, 452, amino acids, 25, 589, 614, 619, 664-670,
917-923 672-673, 686, 687, 689, 702-703, 720
planning intakes, 956-957, 964 aortic fatty streaks, 815
RDAs, 4, 6, 47, 265, 285, 289-290, 292, aspartame, 702-703
293 BMI, 35, 36, 65, 130-131, 216, 310, 814,
research recommendations, 323-324 1114-1127, 1128-1139
special considerations, 283, 293 BMR, 141, 171, 1114-1121
TEF, 110, 114 bone mass, 66
total, 63, 956-957 brain development, 284, 286-287, 288-
Carbohydrate-free diet, 277-278, 281, 287- 289, 608-609
288, 289, 293, 701 carbohydrates, 65, 265, 284-285, 294,
Carbon metabolism, 605-607 295, 769, 813, 1226-1231
Carboxymethylcellulose gum, 367, 382 chronic disease risk in adulthood, 130,
Carboxypeptidases, 599 814-815
Cardiac arrhythmias, 59, 60, 427, 829, 927 congenital defects of amino acids, 619,
Cardiovascular disease. See also 697
Atherosclerosis; Coronary artery constipation, 370-371, 385-386
disease; Coronary heart disease dental caries, 296
cholesterol intake, 546, 548, 549, 560, derivation of DRIs, 32
562 diarrhea, 438
lipid profile and, 302, 562-569 EARs, 25, 32, 34, 46-47, 284, 631, 664-
monounsaturated fatty acids and, 485- 669, 672-673
486 EERs, 107, 130-131, 168-170, 171, 174-
physical exercise and, 60-61, 927 177, 216-219
Carnitine, 430, 607, 608, 723, 724 energy expenditure, 116, 134-135, 138,
Carnosine, 721 141, 146, 148, 161-164, 174, 1114-1127
Carotenoids, 424, 785, 792-793 energy intakes, 54, 65, 170, 386, 473,
Catecholamines, 608, 735 474, 814, 1226-1231
Caucasians epilepsy, 284
carbohydrate-free diet, 275 extrapolation of data from adults to, 25,
energy expenditure, 145-146 26-27, 34, 47, 284
pubertal development, 33 factorial method, 628, 631, 666-669
Cell growth and proliferation, 55 fat (dietary), 437, 438, 441, 459, 769,
Cell surface adhesion proteins, 490 810, 814-816, 945, 1226-1227, 1230-
Cellulose (dietary or functional fiber), 344- 1231
345, 348, 350, 351, 356, 358, 359, fatty acids, 456, 1228-1231
367, 371, 372, 382, 390, 394 fiber, 370-371, 385-386, 1226-1227, 1230-
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 1231
130, 216 glucose metabolism, 286-287, 288-289
Cereals and cereal fiber, 55-56, 359, 363, growth, 32, 47, 134, 142, 151, 167-168,
364, 369, 370, 373, 377, 378, 380-381, 174, 175, 221, 222, 437, 441, 456,
387, 388, 394, 399, 788 459, 609, 611, 810-811, 839-840, 922-
Chicago Western Electric Study, 562, 826- 923
827, 828 high fat, low carbohydrate diets, 814-816
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1285
I NDEX
hyperactivity, 295 Chinese restaurant syndrome, 715-716
hypercholesterolemia, 811 Chitin and chitosan (functional fiber), 345,
lipid profiles, 811, 814-815 351-352, 384, 395-396
low fat, high carbohydrate diets, 438, Chloride, 725
810-814 Cholesterol (dietary)
malnutrition, 167, 608-609, 839 absorption, 4, 60, 359, 369, 543-544, 561
methodological considerations, 25, 47-48 animal studies, 548, 562
micronutrient intakes with adverse effects of, 549, 558-573
macronutrients, 220, 811-814, 816, balance studies, 543-544
1204-1205, 1228-1231 and cancer, 54, 568, 570-579
nitrogen balance studies, 624-627, 664- and cardiovascular disease, 546, 548,
666 549, 560, 562
of obese parents, 133 and CHD, 58, 542, 548, 562-569, 572,
obesity or overweight, 65, 130, 134, 140, 573, 836
153, 216-219, 307, 310, 312-313, 459, and diabetes type 2, 563
811, 814, 923, 1168-1179, 1200, 1202 dietary intake, 549, 550-559, 563, 960,
PAL, 166, 1122-1127, 1128-1139, 1168- 1058-1059
1179 dose–response assessment, 568-573
phenylketonuria, 619 epidemiological studies, 562-569
physical activity, 66, 138, 140, 146, 171, food sources, 48, 544, 545, 546-549, 836
174, 880, 883, 902-907, 911-912, 924 function, 4, 542, 543
polyunsaturated fatty acids, 438, 444, hazard identification, 549-568
463, 469-470 high cholesterol diets, 545, 836
protein, 25, 284, 608-609, 611, 624-629, by life stage and gender group, 546-549,
631, 667-669, 686, 687, 689, 692, 769, 1058-1059
811, 839-840 and lipid profile, 544-545, 548-562, 563,
RDAs, 25, 34, 47, 265, 285, 631-632, 670, 568-569, 573
672-673 and lipoprotein metabolism, 544-545,
saturated fatty acids, 474, 816, 835, 1226- 548-562, 563, 568-569, 573
1227, 1230-1231 low cholesterol diets, 546, 561, 835
special considerations, 216-219 metabolism, 4, 429, 544-546, 562
stunting, 151, 217, 220, 221, 222, 811, oxidation products, 545-546
840 reducing intakes, 836
sugar intakes, 307-310, 813-814, 1204- research recommendations, 574-575,
1205 578
TEE, 134-135, 148, 161-164, 166, 174, risk characterization, 573-574
217, 1114-1127, 1128-1139, 1168- Cholesterol (plasma/serum total), 572. See
1179, 1200, 1202 also HDL cholesterol; LDL
TEF, 134, 171 cholesterol
toddlers (1 to 3 years), 32, 35, 130, 132- amino acids and, 721, 724
135, 166, 167-170, 284, 285, 386, 463, and cardiovascular disease, 546, 548,
470, 626-628, 631, 632, 664, 672, 686, 549, 560, 562
687, 689, 769, 816, 1106-1123, 1128- and CHD, 58, 542, 548, 562-569, 572,
1129, 1226-1231 573, 836
trans fatty acids, 456 cholesterol intakes and, 550-561
UL derivation for, 34 fat intake and, 58, 544, 550-559, 560, 809
underweight, 130, 811 fiber intake and, 4, 59-60, 339, 351, 352,
urea synthesis defects, 699 354, 355, 356, 357, 358-359, 360, 361,
wasting, 840 365-368
weight control, 216-219 genetic factors, 58, 544, 545, 546, 561-562
weights and heights, reference, 34, 35, glycemic index and, 302
130, 132-137, 176, 178, 983
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1308 INDEX
recommended, 4, 56, 880, 882-883, 910, amino acid supplements and, 702, 705-
911-912, 913, 926, 928-929 706
reported, 184 athletes, 115, 138, 139, 180, 918, 924, 925
research recommendations, 225, 829 and body composition, 922, 923, 924
residual effects of, 112, 139 carbohydrate balance and, 64, 318-319,
and skeletal health, 66, 180, 928 452, 917-923, 924-925
sleeping, 118 and carbohydrate/electrolyte beverages,
special considerations, 660-661 924-925
spontaneous nonexercise activity, 139- and cardiovascular events, 927
140, 146 defined, 881
TEF and, 884, 886, 895 and dehydration, 926-927
trends in, 881-882 duration, 918, 920-921
walking, 115, 116, 140, 158, 161, 183- endurance (aerobic), 61, 138, 140, 143,
184, 190, 881, 889-894, 895, 903, 906- 318, 452, 660, 882, 916, 917, 918,
909, 912, 913, 927 923, 924
and weight control, 209, 452, 888, 908 energy expenditure for, 884, 924
Physical activity level (PAL) excess post-exercise oxygen
active lifestyle, 158, 162-163, 895-899, consumption, 112, 139
900-903 female athlete triad, 928
age/aging and, 143 gender differences, 921, 928
BEE and, 887, 888, 895 and growth and development, 180, 922-
BMI and, 220, 223, 814, 911 923
and BMR, 115, 902 and hyperthermia, 910, 926-927
body weight and, 116, 184, 889, 891-895 and hypothermia, 927
calculation, 887-889 intensity, 918-920, 921, 922, 925
categories, 157-161, 162-163, 164, 183 and lipid oxidation, 917-923
and chronic disease risk reduction, 914- overuse injuries, 926
917 physical education in schools, 923, 924
defined, 116, 174, 887 pregnancy and, 907, 908-911
DLW studies, 895 recovery from illness and, 922
evaluation of, 118, 180, 895-909 resistance exercise, 223, 661, 925, 928
exercise program, 209 running, 115, 138, 184, 223, 892, 893,
gender differences, 903, 904-905 894, 926
and glycemic index of foods, 318 treadmill, 184, 913
impact of activities on, 884-912 and weight, 61, 115-116, 213-215, 452,
intensity of physical activity and, 138, 773
184, 887-889, 904-905 Physical fitness
low-active lifestyle, 158, 162-163, 183, defined, 179-180, 881
895-899 endurance (aerobic) training and, 923
measurement, 174 intensity of exercise and, 140
reference activity, 889 objectives, 883
RMR and, 917 pregnancy and, 907-908
sedentary, 115, 118-119, 140, 183, 200, resistance exercise and, 925, 928
895-899 and spontaneous physical activity, 139
TEE and, 157-161, 162-163, 164, 884, supplementation of water and nutrients,
887, 906-909 925-926
very active lifestyle, 115, 138, 158-159, Physicians’ Health Study, 827, 828
162-163, 895-899 Phytochemicals, 369, 379, 391, 394, 395, 788
Physical exercise Pima Indians, 134, 146, 804-807
adaptations in program, 928 Pituitary adenomas, 396
age and, 922, 924 Planet Health, 318-319
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1309
I NDEX
Planning nutrient intakes epidemiological studies, 826-828, 832
AI and, 946, 948 evidence considered for estimating
AMDR and, 946, 948-949 requirements, 443-447
carbohydrate, 956-957, 964 excretion, 435
EAR and, 947-948 food sources, 478, 771
energy, 949-956, 963, 964 function, 8, 443, 444-445, 446, 466, 468,
fat, 959 469
fiber, 957-958, 964 and glucose metabolism, 833
of groups, 947-949, 952-954 and growth, 444-447, 468, 469, 471
of individuals, 946, 949-952 hazard identification, 487-493
integrated example, 963-964, 965 high-intake diets, 834
polyunsaturated fatty acids, 959-960, 964 and immune function, 443, 487-492, 834
protein and amino acids, 946, 961, 964 and insulin sensitivity, 832-833
RDA and, 946 interaction of n-6 and, 453-454
saturated fatty acids, trans fatty acids, intervention studies (nonclinical), 828,
and cholesterol, 960 830-831, 832-833
UL and, 946, 947-948 and learning behavior, 445, 446, 447
Plant sterols, 544 by life stage and gender group, 11, 466-
Plasma amino acid response method, 614- 473, 1048-1049
615, 670-671 and lipid profile, 826, 828, 830-831
Poland and United States Collaborative low intake diets, 826-834
Study on Cardiovascular metabolism, 434-435, 439, 445-447, 453-
Epidemiology, 484 456, 466
Polydextrose (dietary or functional fiber) n-6:n-3 ratio, 8, 434, 439, 446-447, 454-
adverse effects, 398 455, 472, 834
characteristics, 341, 346-347 and neural development and function,
laxation, 357 443, 444-445, 446, 466, 468, 469
and lipid concentrations, 357 and obesity, 832
uses, 36 oxidative damage, 493, 832
Polyp Prevention Trial, 374 parenteral nutrition and, 443, 454-455,
Polysaccharides, 265, 341, 342, 343, 344, 469
350, 377 protective effects of, 55, 826-834
Polyunsaturated fatty acids, n-3. See also α- randomized controlled clinical trials,
Linoleic acid; other individual fatty 446, 828-829
research recommendations, 509, 514
acids
absorption, 434 special considerations, 469, 471-472, 494
adverse effects of, 63, 487-494 and stroke risk, 59, 492-493, 827-828,
AMDRs, 834-835 829, 834
animal studies, 444-445, 492 supplements, 455, 471-472, 487-491, 492-
and bleeding time, 492-493 493, 494, 828, 829, 832, 833
and blood pressure, 829 and total fat, 58
and body fat, 832 trans fatty acid impact, 455-456
and cancer, 54, 55, 833-834 vegetarian diets, 466
and carbohydrate utilization, 832 and vision, 443, 444, 445, 446
and cardiovascular disease, 59, 455 Polyunsaturated fatty acids, n-6. See also
and CHD, 59, 62-63, 455, 492, 826-827, Linoleic acid; other specific fatty acids
828-829 absorption, 433
deficiency, 439-440, 443-447, 454-455, adverse effects of overconsumption, 486,
469, 834 825
and diabetes, 494, 832-833 adverse effects of underconsumption,
dietary intakes, 478, 959-960, 944, 1048- 821-822
1057
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1310 INDEX
AIs, 461, 944-945 carbohydrates, 188
AMDRs, 486, 825-826 cervical ripening, 472
and cancer risk, 54, 824-825 CHD risk, 389
and CHD, 59, 434, 798-799, 820-821 derivation of DRIs for, 34, 47-48
deficiency, 8, 438-439, 442, 454-455, 460, DLW studies, 193, 196-197, 290
463, 464, 785 EARs, 34, 47, 290-292, 650-655, 680
and diabetes risk, 821 EERs, 107, 116-117, 185, 188-194, 437
dietary intakes, 442, 478, 944, 959-960 energy metabolism, 47, 185, 188-189,
energy contribution, 478, 821 193, 194-195, 197, 290
epidemiological studies, 820-821 fat (dietary), 290, 437
evidence considered for estimating fiber, 353, 388
requirements, 442-443 food supplementation trials, 654
excretion, 434 glucose metabolism, 189-190, 290-291
food sources, 476, 822 growth of maternal and fetal tissues, 92,
function, 426-427 190-192, 194-195
and glucose metabolism, 821 insulin resistance, 189, 291
high-intake diets, 823-825 multiparous, 656
and immune function, 439 nitrogen balance studies, 650-653, 654-
and inflammatory disorders, 824 655
interaction of n-3 and, 453-454 obesity and overweight, 191
intervention studies, 821 obligatory fetal transfer, 47
by life stage and gender group, 10, 460- physical activity, 190, 197, 907-911, 1164-
466 1165
and lipid peroxidation, 823-824 polyunsaturated fatty acids, 465, 471-472
and lipid profile, 59, 798-799, 820-821, potassium balance, 650-653
822-824 protein, 839
low fat diets and, 785 RDA, 292, 656, 680-681
low intake diets, 820-823 special considerations, 656
metabolism, 8, 433-434, 442, 443, 453- supplements, 654, 656, 726
456, 476 TEE, 116, 193, 197, 290, 1164-1165
n-6:n-3 ratio, 8, 434, 439, 442, 446-447, thermic effect of food, 190
454-455, 472, 834 ULs, 92
parenteral nutrition and, 438, 442, 444, weight, 47-48, 188, 190, 191, 192, 196,
454-455, 460, 464 650, 652, 653, 655, 709, 726, 732,
primary, 426 908, 910
requirement, 38 Prolactin, 189, 715
research recommendations, 508-509 Proline (dispensable), 592, 593, 607, 697,
special considerations, 461, 463 712, 717, 728-729, 736, 1016-1017
trans fatty acid impact, 455-456 Prospective studies, breast cancer and
Potassium, 650-653, 725, 838 dietary fiber, 378
Prealbumin, 609, 610 Prostaglandins, 434, 838
Pregnancy. See also Lactation Prostate cancer, 54, 55, 56, 57, 321, 379,
adaptation to, 34, 47, 197, 290, 291, 650 486, 568, 578-579, 808, 819, 825, 833-
adolescents, 48, 193, 201-202, 292, 389, 834, 837, 844
465, 471-472, 650-652, 654, 655 Protease, 602
AIs, 34, 47, 388, 465, 471-472 Protective effects
α-linoleic acid, 427, 770
amino acids, 680-681, 709, 724, 726, 732,
735 amino acids, 726
animal studies, 709, 726 cancer prevention, 54, 55, 819, 833-834
BMR, 185, 188-191, 291 CLA, 428, 836-838
body composition, 188, 191-192 diabetes type 2, 380-381
OCR for page 1311
1311
I NDEX
fiber, 55-56, 59, 63, 322, 339, 348, 363, food supplementation trials, 654
367-368, 369, 372, 374, 375, 376-380 function, 9, 38, 589, 590
Protein. See also Amino acids; Nitrogen gastrointestinal effects, 694
absorption, 114, 599-600, 609 gender difference, 640-641, 643, 644
adaptations to metabolism of, 47, 293, and gluconeogenesis, 278, 284, 287-288,
596, 605, 611, 650, 657, 694 293
adverse effects of, 692-694 and glycemic index of foods, 269
age/aging and, 595, 602, 640-641, 642 and growth, 280-281, 608-609, 654, 683,
AIs, 619-621 811, 839-840
allergies, 692 hazard identification, 692-694
AMDR, 15, 769, 844 high-protein diets, 692-694, 712, 841-844
amino acid content, 279, 621, 666, 682, and immune function, 609, 621, 839
685-686 incomplete, 691
and amino acid homeostasis, 595-598 insulin response, 279
assessment of nutritional status, 609-610 intake assessment, 695, 960-961
and birth weight, 840 intestinal losses, 600-601
and blood pressure, 60, 843 and kidney stones, 694, 841-842
and BMR, 598 by life stage and gender group, 12-13,
body composition and, 626-629, 644, 843 603, 619-662, 1060-1063, 1074-1075
body reserve, 595-596, 602, 609 and lipid profile, 60, 840, 843
and cancer, 54, 843-844 low-protein diets, 648, 667, 697, 707,
catabolism, 278, 284 709, 721, 731-732, 839-840
and CHD, 60 maintenance (homeostasis), 595-597,
chemistry, 590-592 598-599, 601-602, 625-627, 630, 632,
chronic disease risk, 694 657, 660, 668, 683, 684
climate and, 640-641, 642 metabolism, 597-598, 609, 650, 657, 724
clinical effects of inadequate intake, 608- methods used to estimate requirements,
609 635, 637-639
complete, 691 micronutrient availability, 840, 841
and coronary artery disease, 694, 842-843 nitrogen balance, 9, 279, 287, 611-613,
deficiency, 601-602, 608-610, 620, 662, 624-625, 632, 633-644, 650, 654-655,
840 684, 691, 693, 1250-1253
degradation, 602 nitrogen/protein ratio, 684-685
deposition rates, 626-629, 665, 666, 669, and obesity, 694, 843
837 and osteoporosis, 694, 841
dietary intakes, 589, 596, 602-603, 624, oxidation, 109
662, 692, 1060-1063, 1074-1075 physical activity and, 660-661
digestion and digestability, 9, 589, 592, planning diets, 946, 961, 964
599-600, 621, 662, 682-684, 688-690 quality, 14, 60, 589, 608, 611, 621, 643,
dose–response assessment, 694 661-662, 682-691, 697, 721, 811, 840
EARs, 12-13, 624-629, 631, 637, 643-644, RDAs, 9, 12-13, 25, 47, 278, 589, 612-613,
646-649, 650-654 629-630, 631-633, 644-645, 649, 656,
efficiency of utilization, 666 659, 844, 946
energy contribution, 109, 589, 605, 647, and renal function, 609, 694, 842
648, 771, 1062-1063, 1074-1075 research recommendations, 737
factorial method, 624, 628, 629, 633, risk characterization, 695
657, 658 selection of indicators for estimating
FAO/WHO recommendations, 648 requirements, 610-613
fat intake and, 60, 271, 693 special considerations, 621, 656, 660-662
food sources, 48, 280-281, 620, 622-623, sugar intakes and, 790-791
640-641, 643, 691, 771 supplementation, 654, 656, 692, 694, 840
OCR for page 1312
1312 INDEX
synthesis, 114, 601-602, 603, 708-709 not established, 107
thermic effect of, 110, 114 replacement with DRIs, 1, 936-937
total, 619-662 uses, 24, 25, 26, 936, 938-939, 944, 946
turnover, 598, 601, 602-603, 611, 650, Recommended Nutrient Intakes (RNIs), 31,
655, 705 936-937
ULs, 692-695 Reference weights and heights
urea production, 594, 601, 603, 604-605, and BMI, 35, 36, 124, 125, 126, 127-130
611, 620, 650, 657, 671, 684, 693-694 derivation of earlier values, 982-984
vegetarians, 661-662, 840 and energy requirements, 183
and weight, 644, 647, 650, 652, 653, 654, new, 35, 36, 982
655 use of, 34, 47, 659
Protein digestibility corrected amino acid Renal cancer, 844
score (PDCAAS), 688-690 Renal failure, 842
Protein–energy malnutrition, 608-610, 704, Renal function, 92
839, 840 Reproductive effects, 701, 712, 713, 715
Protein-free diet, 278, 635, 648, 667, 683 Requirement, defined, 21-22, 39
Psyllium (functional fiber), 347, 348, 356, Research recommendations. See also
357-360, 365, 366, 371, 374-375, 388, individual nutrients
398-399, 693-694 adverse effects, 970-971
Puberty/pubertal development amino acids, 737-738
age at onset, 33, 983 approach to setting, 968
developmental changes, 177 body composition and size, 225, 240
growth spurt, 142 carbohydrates, 323-324
racial/ethnic differences, 33 cholesterol, 574-575, 578
Purine nucleotide cycle, 604, 605 chronic disease relationships to intakes,
Pyrimidine nucleotides, 620 970
Pyruvate, 604, 605 data and database issues, 969-971
energy, 225, 240, 323-324
fat (total), 324, 505, 514
R fiber, 399-400
major information gaps and, 18, 44, 969-
Race/ethnicity. See also African Americans; 971
Caucasians methodology, 969-970
and BMR, 146
monounsaturated fatty acids, 505
and energy expenditure, 145-146 physical activity, 225, 829
and pubertal development polyunsaturated fatty acids, 508-509, 514
and reporting of dietary intakes, 117
priorities, 18, 971
Raffinose, 265, 342 protein, 737
Randomized clinical trials, 42-43, 828-829 requirements, 969
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA)
saturated fatty acids, 505
AIs compared, 6, 26-27 trans fatty acids, 514
coefficient of variation, 24-25, 47, 285, Resistant dextrins (dietary or functional
289, 292, 293, 630, 632-633, 645, 656,
fiber), 341, 347, 360
670, 679, 682 Resistant starch (dietary or functional
criteria used to derive, 6 fiber), 268, 342, 344, 347, 348, 360-
defined, 3, 22, 23, 24, 285, 289-290, 292,
361, 366, 371, 376-377, 378, 382, 384,
293, 629 390, 399
derivation, 285, 629-630, 633, 644-645, Respiratory quotient (RQ), 109, 119-120,
649, 656, 679, 682
189, 196, 279, 291, 832
EAR and, 23, 24 Resting energy expenditure (REE), 112,
method used to set, 24-25, 34, 47, 981- 114, 128, 133, 141, 212
982
OCR for page 1313
1313
I NDEX
Resting metabolic rate (RMR) energy contribution, 474, 835, 1072-
aging and, 143 1073, 1226-1227
body composition and size and, 131, evidence considered for estimating
135, 138, 144 requirements, 441, 460
energy expenditure, 112, 131, 132, 141, excretion, 432
148, 165 food sources, 424, 425, 474, 475-476,
FFM and, 113, 139 771, 835, 836
gender differences, 141 function, 4, 422, 425, 432, 460, 484-485
lactation and, 195 and glucose tolerance, 484, 485
menstrual cycle and, 141 hazard identification, 481-485
weight and, 113, 133, 135 high-intake diets, 836
Retinol, 792-793 and insulin sensitivity, 62, 484-485, 806
Retinol binding protein, 609, 610 by life stage and gender group, 1042-
Rheumatoid arthritis, 487, 722, 824 1043, 1072-1073
Riboflavin, 790-791, 835, 840, 1228-1243 and lipid profile, 422, 432, 481-484, 560,
Risk assessment models. See also UL 561, 809, 835
modeling low intake diets, 835
application to nutrients, 27, 91-94 metabolism, 4, 432
basic concepts, 86-87 and micronutrient intakes, 835
bioavailability considerations, 93-94, 98 and mortality incidence, 484
defined, 86, 976 in nonvegetarian diets, 1076
environmental chemicals vs. nutrients, 91 and obesity, 484
EPA guidelines, 1246 properties, 424
and food safety, 86-90, 104 reducing intakes, 836
limitations, 100 research recommendations, 505
nutrient–nutrient interactions, 93 and total fat, 58, 424
process, 87-89, 97-98 in vegetarian diets, 835, 1076
sensitivity of individuals, 89, 92-93, 97-98, Schizophrenia, 720
100, 101 Scottish Heart Health Study, 316-317, 318-
thresholds, 89-90 319, 790-793
uncertainties, 86, 87, 91-92, 100, 1244- Selenium, 444
1249 Sensitive subpopulations. See also Special
Risk characterization, 86, 89, 90, 976 considerations
Risk management, 87, 89, 104, 976 identification of, 97-98
Septicemia, 609, 705
Serine (dispensable), 591, 593, 594, 597,
S 604, 608, 711, 719, 729-730, 736,
1018-1019
Satiety, 65, 313, 348, 382-384, 388, 794, 795, Serotonin, 608, 706, 731, 732, 916
796, 843
Seven Countries Study, 562, 817, 826, 827
Saturated fatty acids. See also individual fatty Seventh Day Adventists, 363, 835
acids Skeletal health, physical activity and, 66
absorption, 431-432
Skin cancer, 837
adverse effects of overconsumption, 481- Sleeping metabolic rate (SMR), 112, 118,
485 140, 147, 165, 195
and BMI, 484
Snack foods, 118, 732-733
and cancer, 484 Socioeconomic status, and reporting of
and CHD risk, 422, 481-484, 797, 798, dietary intakes, 117
799
Sodium, 725
and diabetes (type 2) risk, 484-485 Soft drinks, 312-313, 789
dietary intake, 474, 960, 1042-1043, Soldiers, 148, 223
1072-1073, 1076-1077, 1226-1227
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1314 INDEX
Somnolence, 698, 700, 722, 733 Sucrase, 272, 592
Sorbitol, 266 Sucrose, 109, 266, 272, 274, 283, 294, 295,
Special considerations. See also individual 297, 298-301, 302, 303, 311, 319, 345
Sugar, 323
nutrients and life-stage groups
athletes, 221-223, 660-661 added, 16, 65, 118, 266-267, 294, 295,
chronic diseases, 494 303, 312, 314-315, 318-319, 323, 770,
disabled individuals, 30, 660 788-789, 790-793, 810, 812-813, 816,
dose–response assessment, 100, 101 957, 988-991, 1203-1225
drug interactions, 494 adverse effects of, 295, 319-321
identification of, 92, 102 alcohols, 266, 341, 342
infant formula, 45, 283, 457, 461, 463, behavioral effects, 295-296, 323
469, 621 and BMI, 65, 310, 313, 316-319
irritable bowel syndrome, 395 and cancer risk, 55, 319-320, 321, 323
linoleic acid:α-linoleic acid ratio, 472 and CHD risk, 303, 800-801
low carbohydrate diets, 293 definition, 266-267
muscle wasting diseases, 660 and dental caries, 61-62, 296-297, 323
negative energy balance, 213-215 and diabetes type 2, 303
overweight and obesity, 202-213, 216-219 dietary intakes, 118, 266, 294-295, 323,
phenylketonuria, 728 988-991, 1206-1209, 1216-1219
physical activity, 660-661 digestion, 272
twin pregnancy, 656 energy intake from, 65, 118, 273, 307,
undernutrition, 220, 221 310, 313, 314-315, 770
vegetarians, 661-662 epidemiological studies, 800-801
weight maintenance, 202-204, 216-219 extrinsic, 266, 297, 812
weight reduction, 209, 212, 213-215, food sources, 266-267, 294, 312-313
219 glycemic index, 323
weight restoration, 220-221 in high fat, low carbohydrate diets, 810
Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor and insulin sensitivity, 303
Intervention Project, 811 intake assessment, 323
Specific Dynamic Action. See Thermic effect intestinal absorption, 273
of food intrinsic, 265
Stachyose, 265, 342 lipogenicity, 59, 297-302, 323
Starch. See also Resistant starch in low fat, high carbohydrate diets, 788-
and cancer risk, 321 789, 790-793
definition, 267-268 maximal intake levels, 16, 810, 816
and dental caries, 296 and micronutrient intake levels, 788-789,
digestion and digestibility, 269, 272 790-793, 809, 812, 1203-1225
energy yields, 109 and obesity, 307, 310-313, 314-319, 323
food sources, 265-266, 294 substitutes, 346, 695, 702-703, 727
glycemic index, 323 total, 313, 314-315, 316-317, 789, 792,
insulin sensitivity, 303 809, 813-814
lipogenesis, 59, 298-301, 302 uses, 266
slow release vs. fast release, 382 Sugar beet fiber, 383, 394, 838
Starvation, 276, 277-279, 284, 430, 437, 595, Supplements, dietary. See also individual
605, 609, 693, 704 nutrients
Stearic acid, 58, 425, 431, 432, 483-484 bioavailability considerations, 29, 93, 94
Sterol-coenzyme A desaturase, 837 chronic consumption, 719, 727
Sterol regulatory element-binding protein, clinical trials, 27-28, 85
545, 562 data sources on intakes, 941
Stroke, 59, 230-231, 492-493, 827-828 fiber, 345
Stunting, 221, 701 impurities in, 733
OCR for page 1315
1315
I NDEX
intake assessment, 88-89, 104 offsetting benefits reduction, 103
physical exercise and, 925-926 supplement use and, 27, 85, 88-89, 91-92
ULs and, 27, 85, 91-92, 104 uses, 27, 84, 85, 936, 940, 945, 947-948
Total energy expenditure (TEE). See also
Energy expenditure
T approach used to determine, 151-164,
202-203
Tarahumara Indians, 546, 561 body composition and size and, 132
Taste and smell acuity, 722 coefficients and standard errors, 1200-
Taurine, 608
1202
Teratogens, 708, 728 components of, 112-116
Testosterone, 543 data analysis and assumptions for
Thermic effect of food (TEF). See also
equations, 154-157
individual nutrients defined, 116
age/aging and, 134, 143, 165, 171, 179 DLW data, 116, 117, 119-121, 122-123,
alcohol, 109-110
138-139, 141, 151-157, 166, 174, 193,
defined, 109-110, 114 198-199, 201, 291, 1104-1202
and energy expenditure, 114, 115, 116, EEPA, 115-116, 117, 133, 138-140, 143-
150, 165, 171
144, 145-146, 147-148
and energy requirements, 165, 171, 190, EER derivation, 149-150, 166, 168-169,
196-197 174, 176, 181, 183, 186, 193-195, 201,
fat, 114
202-203, 208
infants, 165 equations for normal-weight children,
lactation and, 196-197 161-164, 1200
obesity and overweight and, 133-134, 143
factorial approach, 116, 118-119
pregnancy and, 190 gender differences, 166, 174, 202-203,
protein, 110, 114 204, 206-213, 217, 218-219
Thermoregulation, 114, 116, 165-166
menstrual cycle and, 141
Thiamin, 790-791, 1228-1243 for obese and overweight individuals,
Threonine (indispensable), 589, 591, 593, 133, 153, 156-157, 202-204, 209-213,
597, 601, 604, 615, 618, 661, 663-665,
1168-1182, 1184-1199, 1201-1202
666, 668, 671-682, 683, 686, 687, 689, PAL categories, 116, 157-161, 162-163,
692, 723, 730-731, 736, 1020-1021 164, 1122-1199
Threonine dehydrogenase, 678
regression on variables, 159-161, 164,
Thrombosis, 427 214
Thromboxanes, 434, 454, 826 reported energy intake and, 117-118
Thyroid hormones, 608
RMR and, 132, 148
Thyroid stimulating hormone, 715 TEF and, 116
Toddlers, ages 1 through 3 years. See underfeeding studies, 213-215
Children
uses, 951
Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (ULs). See whole-body calorimetry measurements,
also UL modeling 120, 122-123, 140
applicable population, 84, 89
Toxicity
criteria and proposed values, 12-13 age and sensitivity to, 92
defined, 3, 22, 23, 27-28, 84, 99 mechanisms of action, 97
derivation of, 27, 85-86, 90, 96, 98, 101,
Trans fatty acids
102 absorption, 436
extrapolation on body-weight basis, 34, adverse effects of, 436, 455-456, 494-505
47, 85, 86, 101
and blood pressure, 504, 506-509
fortification of foods and, 27, 85 and cancer, 512-515
not established for macronutrients, 101- and cardiovascular disease, 503
104, 107, 224, 694, 770, 940, 946
OCR for page 1316
1316 INDEX
and cerebrovascular disease, 503 monounsaturated fatty acid intake and,
and CHD risk, 58, 423, 504, 510-513 817-818
controlled feeding trials, 496-499 physical exercise and, 60
dietary intakes, 436, 479, 835, 960 polyunsaturated fatty acids and, 59, 820,
energy contribution, 479, 480 821, 822-823, 826, 828, 830-831
epidemiological studies, 510-515 protein intake and, 60, 843
evidence considered for estimating sugar intake and, 297-301
requirements, 447, 473 synthesis, 431, 432, 439
excretion, 437 very low density lipoprotein, 430, 431, 439
and fetal and infant growth, 436, 455 Tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle, 274
food sources, 48, 427-428, 436, 455, 479, Triceps skinfold measurements, 125, 128,
480, 495, 836 1080-1081, 1086-1087, 1092-1093,
free-living trials, 500-503 1100-1101
function, 427-428 Trisaccharides, 272
hazard identification, 494-504 Trypsin, 599
and hemostatic factors, 504, 506-509 Tryptophan (indispensable), 589, 591, 593,
high-intake diets, 836 608, 616, 663-665, 666, 668, 672-675,
and LDL oxidation, 504, 506-509 677, 678, 679-682, 686, 687, 689, 692,
and lipid profile, 58, 423, 494-503, 504 704, 705, 706, 707, 709, 710, 726,
low-intake diets, 835 731-734, 736, 1022-1023
and Lp(a), 496-503, 510-511 24-Hour amino acid balance method, 616-
measuring intakes, 436 617, 670-671, 676, 677
metabolism, 436-437 2000 Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 124, 267
and polyunsaturated fatty acid Typhoid vaccine, 488-489, 491
metabolism metabolism, 455-456 Tyrosine (conditionally indispensable), 589,
properties, 424, 427 591, 593, 594, 597, 608, 617, 619,
reducing intakes, 836 663-665, 666, 668, 671-682, 686, 687,
research recommendations, 514 689, 703, 704, 707, 709, 710, 726,
transport, 436 727, 734-736, 1024-1025
Transamination, 604, 704, 712 Tyrosinemia II, 735
Transferrin, 609, 610
Trauma, 596, 605
U
Trehalose, 266
Triacylglycerol or triacylglyceride. See also
Ubiquitin-protease system, 602
Fat, total; Lipids and lipid
UCP1 gene, 145
metabolism
UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey of
amino acid intake and, 724
Children, 314-315, 790-791
carbohydrate intakes and, 59, 275, 783
UL modeling. See also Dose–response
and CHD risk, 57-58, 59, 437
assessment; Risk assessment models
fat intake and, 777-781
critical endpoint, 93, 98, 99, 101, 102
fiber intake and, 60, 351, 354, 356, 357,
data selection, 98
359, 360, 361, 367-368, 369
hazard identification, 94-98
food sources, 473
mathematical models, 85-86
gluconeogenesis, 275, 278
nutrient intake assessment, 104
glycemic index and, 302, 322
risk characterization, 86, 89, 90, 104-105
glycerol content, 278, 279
uncertainty assessment, 89, 98, 100-101
hydrolysis of, 429
Ulcerative colitis, 348, 371
lipoprotein metabolism and, 61, 278
Uncertainties
low fat, high carbohydrate diets and,
in AIs, 26, 44
777-781
amino acid scoring patterns, 688
lypolysis, 431
approaches for dealing with, 1244-1249
OCR for page 1317
1317
I NDEX
V
assessment, 89, 98, 100-101
case-by-case judgments, 1246-1247, 1248-
Vaccenic acid, 426, 428
1249
Valine (indispensable), 589, 591, 593, 597,
in data, 86, 99, 1246
663-665, 666, 668, 672-675, 677, 678,
default options, 1246, 1248-1249
679-682, 686, 687, 689, 704-711, 726,
dose–response assessment, 98, 100-101
736, 1026-1027
in exposure routes, 98
Vegetables. See Fruits and vegetables
extrapolation from one age group to
Vegetarians, 372, 466, 661-662, 835, 975,
another, 101
1077
range of estimates applied to, 1246,
Very low density lipoprotein (VLDL), 61,
1248-1249
430, 439, 545
in risk assessment, 86, 87, 91-92, 100-
remnant, 431, 544
101, 102-103, 1244-1249
Vision, 439, 440, 468, 711, 714, 720, 722,
Uncertainty factors
729
defined, 90, 977
Vitamin A, 424, 609, 785, 788, 789, 790-793,
for energy intake, 224
811, 812, 813, 1204-1211, 1214-1221,
inferences from experimental animal
1224-1225
studies, 100, 1245-1246
Vitamin B6, 771, 785, 788, 789, 790-793,
LOAEL instead of NOAEL, 100-101
1228-1243
selection of, 87, 99, 100
Vitamin B12, 771, 785, 789, 790-791, 813,
sensitivity of individuals, 100
835, 1228-1243
sources of uncertainty in, 100-101
Vitamin C, 771, 788, 789, 790-791, 808, 813,
subchronic NOAEL to predict chronic
816, 1228-1243
NOAEL, 101
Vitamin D, 424, 790-791, 811, 812, 840, 841
use, 90, 91
Vitamin E, 424, 444, 493, 785, 789, 790-793,
Undernutrition, 130, 220
811, 812, 813, 829, 1204-1211, 1214-
Underweight, 121, 130, 190, 811
1221, 1224-1225
United Kingdom Department of Health, 266
Vitamin K, 424, 788
United Nations University, 621, 634
VLDL cholesterol, 843
United States
fiber definitions, 340
human milk intake and composition,
W
172-173
physical activity recommendations, 882- Waist circumference, 124-125, 127, 1080-
883 1081, 1084-1085, 1094-1099, 1102-
Urea, 114, 594, 601, 603, 604-605, 611, 620,
1103
650, 657, 671, 684, 693-694, 699, 712 Water
Uric acid, 603, 604 and laxation, 370, 398
Urinary C-peptide, 322, 353, 361
physical exercise and, 925-926
U.S. Department of Agriculture, 49, 124, Weight. See also Obesity and overweight;
266, 294, 344, 346, 391, 479, 771, 882 Reference weights and heights;
U.S. Department of Health and Human
Underweight; individual life-stage
Services groups
dietary intake survey data, 49 adaptation, 150
Office of Disease Prevention and Health
adjustment of DRIs based on, 34
Promotion, 1 adults, 143, 183, 184, 220, 1078-1081,
2000 Dietary Guidelines, 124, 882-883 1088-1091
U.S. Department of Health, Education, and
age/aging and, 143, 167
Welfare, 882 amino acids and, 697, 698, 700, 707,
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 709, 713, 721, 724, 730, 731-732, 734
1246
OCR for page 1318
1318 INDEX
BEE and, 116, 141, 150, 183, 184, 186, Whites. See Caucasians
206-213, 888 Whole-body calorimetry, 120, 122-123
BMI and, 1080-1081 Women. See also Gender differences;
body fat and, 1090-1091 Lactation; Pregnancy
and chronic disease, 224, 226-229 bone mineral density, 841, 928
and diabetes type 2, 802 calcium, 789, 841
energy balance and, 65, 150, 212, 214, carbohydrate intakes compared to other
220 nutrients, 1238-1243
and energy expenditure, 116, 132, 135, CHD, 363, 364
141, 150, 157, 159-161, 183, 184, 186, colon cancer, 373
206-213, 215, 216-219, 889, 891-895, diabetes type 2, 380, 381
951 energy expenditure, 140
energy intake and, 121, 223-224, 793- fiber, 363, 364, 373, 380, 381
794, 951-952 glycemic load, 303
and energy requirements, 112, 183, 184, menopause, 141, 143, 921
220 metabolic rate, 140, 141
epidemiological studies, 382-383 nutrient intakes with added sugars,
fat intake and, 441, 452, 773-776, 809 1218-1225
fiber intake and, 65, 339, 351-352, 370, oral contraceptives, 921
382-384 physical activity, 138, 140, 894, 913, 921,
gain, 47-48, 110, 121, 143, 144, 167, 186, 928
223-224, 226-229, 452, 650, 652, 653, premenopausal, 140, 141
654, 655, 697, 698, 709, 730-732, 734, protein intakes, 695, 841
802, 951-952 reference weights and heights, 126
gender differences, 1078-1081, 1088- weight control, 352, 773
1091 Women’s Health Initiative Observational
genetic factors, 144, 452 Study, 913
hypocaloric vs. isocaloric diets, 772 World Cancer Research Fund, 321
intervention studies, 311, 383-384 World Health Organization, 84, 110, 121,
loss, 61, 65, 121, 199-200, 204, 209, 212, 621, 634, 648, 684, 913
215, 217, 219, 225, 311, 313, 351-352,
370, 383, 721, 843, 951
X
low fat, high carbohydrate diets, 311,
773-777
Xylose, 345
maintenance, 149, 202-209, 216-219,
382-383, 441, 773-777, 951-952
measurement confounding, 202-204
Y
metabolic rate and, 112, 113, 135, 138
overeating and, 121, 151 Youth Risk Behavior Study, 923
physical exercise and, 61, 115-116, 213-
215, 452, 773
Z
pregnancy, 47-48, 188, 190, 191, 192,
196, 650, 652, 653, 655, 709
Zinc, 221, 391, 394, 397-398, 705, 721-723,
protein (nitrogen) and, 598, 612, 843
771, 785, 789, 790-793, 812, 813-814,
rapid loss, 217
840, 1204-1209, 1212-1219, 1222-
recommended, 117
1225, 1228-1243
regain after loss, 135
Zutphen Elderly Study, 381, 483, 826, 827
restoration, 220-221
stabilization, 138
and TEE, 159-161
velocity, 142
Representative terms from entire chapter:
amino acids
