Kromhout D, Menotti A, Bloemberg B, Aravanis C, Blackburn H, Buzina R, Dontas AS, Fidanza F, Giampaoli S, Jansen A, Karvonen M, Katan M, Nissinen A, Nedeljkovic S, Pekkanen J, Pekkarinen M, Punsar S, Räsänen L, Simic B, Toshima H. 1995. Dietary saturated and trans fatty acids and cholesterol and 25-year mortality from coronary heart disease: The Seven Countries Study. Prev Med 24:308–315.

Lagström H, Seppänen R, Jokinen E, Niinikoski H, Rönnemaa T, Viikari J, Simell O. 1999. Influence of dietary fat on the nutrient intake and growth of children from 1 to 5 y of age: The Special Turku Coronary Risk Factor Intervention Project. Am J Clin Nutr 69:516–523.

Lands WEM, Hamazaki T, Yamazaki K, Okuyama H, Sakai K, Goto Y, Hubbard VS. 1990. Changing dietary patterns. Am J Clin Nutr 51:991–993.

Lands WEM, Libelt B, Morris A, Kramer NC, Prewitt TE, Bowen P, Schmeisser D, Davidson MH, Burns JH. 1992. Maintenance of lower proportions of (n-6) eicosanoid precursors in phospholipids of human plasma in response to added dietary (n-3) fatty acids. Biochim Biophys Acta 1180:147–162.

Lapinleimu H, Viikari J, Jokinen E, Salo P, Routi T, Leino A, Rönnemaa R, Seppänen R, Välimäki I, Simell O. 1995. Prospective randomised trial in 1062 infants of diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol. Lancet 345:471–476.

Larson DE, Hunter GR, Williams MJ, Kekes-Szabo T, Nyikos I, Goran MI. 1996. Dietary fat in relation to body fat and intraabdominal adipose tissue: A cross-sectional analysis. Am J Clin Nutr 64:677–684.

Latruffe N, Vamecq J. 1997. Peroxisome proliferators and peroxisome proliferator activated receptors (PPARs) as regulators of lipid metabolism. Biochimie 79:81–94.

Lee TH, Hoover RL, Williams JD, Sperling RI, Ravalese JD, Spur BW, Robinson DR, Corey EJ, Lewis RA, Austen KF. 1985. Effect of dietary enrichment with eicosapentaenoic and docosahexaenoic acids on in vitro neutrophil and monocyte leukotriene generation and neutrophil function. N Engl J Med 312:1217–1224.

Leibel RL, Hirsch J, Appel BE, Checani GC. 1992. Energy intake required to maintain body weight is not affected by wide variation in diet composition. Am J Clin Nutr 55:350–355.

Leibovitz BE, Hu ML, Tappel AL. 1990. Lipid peroxidation in rat tissue slices: Effect of dietary vitamin E, corn oil-lard and mehaden oil. Lipids 25:125–129.

Lemaitre RN, King IB, Patterson RE, Psaty BM, Kestin M, Heckbert SR. 1998. Assessment of trans-fatty acid intake with a food frequency questionnaire and validation with adipose tissue levels of trans-fatty acids. Am J Epidemiol 148:1085–1093.

Levinson PD, Iosiphidis AH, Saritelli AL, Herbert PN, Steiner M. 1990. Effects of n-3 fatty acids in essential hypertension. Am J Hypertens 3:754–760.

Lichtenstein AH, Ausman LM, Carrasco W, Jenner JL, Ordovas JM, Schaefer EJ. 1993. Hydrogenation impairs the hypolipidemic effect of corn oil in humans. Hydrogenation, trans fatty acids, and plasma lipids. Arterioscler Thromb 13:154–161.

Lichtenstein AH, Ausman LM, Jalbert SM, Schaefer EJ. 1999. Effects of different forms of dietary hydrogenated fats on serum lipoprotein cholesterol levels. N Engl J Med 340:1933–1940.

Lippi G, Guidi G. 1999. Biochemical risk factors and patient’s outcome: The case of lipoprotein(a). Clin Chim Acta 280:59–71.

Front Matter (R1-R26)

Summary (1-20)

1. Introduction to Dietary Reference Intakes (21-37)

2. Methods and Approaches Used (38-52)

3. Relationship of Macronutrients and Physical Activity to Chronic Disease (53-83)

4. A Model for the Development of Tolerable Upper Intake Levels (84-106)

5. Energy (107-264)

6. Dietary Carbohydrates: Sugars and Starches (265-338)

7. Dietary, Functional, and Total Fiber (339-421)

8. Dietary Fats: Total Fat and Fatty Acids (422-541)

9. Cholesterol (542-588)

10. Protein and Amino Acids (589-768)

11. Macronutrients and Healthful Diets (769-879)

12. Physical Activity (880-935)

13. Applications of Dietary Reference Intakes for Macronutrients (936-967)

14. A Research Agenda (968-971)

Appendix A: Glossary and Acronyms (972-977)

Appendix B: Origin and Framework of the Development of Dietary Reference Intakes (978-984)

Appendix C: Acknowledgments (985-987)

Appendix D: Dietary Intake Data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III), 1988-1994 (988-1027)

Appendix E: Dietary Intake Data from the Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII) 1994-1996, 1998 (1028-1065)

Appendix F: Canadian Dietary Intake Data, 1990-1997 (1066-1075)

Appendix G: Special Analyses for Dietary Fats (1076-1077)

Appendix H: Body Composition Data Based on the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III), 1988-1994 (1078-1103)

Appendix I: Doubly Labeled Water Data Used to Predict Energy Expenditure (1104-1202)

Appendix J: Association of Added Sugar Intake and Intake of Other Nutrients (1203-1225)

Appendix K: Data Comparing Carbohydrate Intake to Intake of Other Nutrients from the Continuing Survey of Food Intakes by Individuals (CSFII), 1994-1996, 1998 (1226-1243)

Appendix L: Options for Dealing with Uncertainties (1244-1249)

Appendix M: Nitrogen Balance Studies Used to Estimate the Protein Requirements in Adults (1250-1258)

Biographical Sketches of Panel and Subcommittee Members (1259-1274)

Index (1275-1318)

Summary Tables, Dietary Reference Intakes (1319-1331)