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OCR for page 277
Index
A
Acoustics, see Noise; Seismic exploration
Aeromap analysis and aerial photography, 44,
46, 190-207
exploration activities, historical, 169
road impacts, 80, 81-82, 110, 190-206
(passim)
seismic exploration, 81-82, 85, 110, 190-206
(passim)
tundra, 44, 46, 190-207 (passim)
Air quality, 13, 40-41, 73
bowhead whales, oil spills, 101
burning oil, 13
Clean Air Act, 240
climate warming, ix, 5, 13, 51, 56-60
marine mammals, 105, 106
nonnative plant species, 80
precipitation, 57, 58
projected resource development, 51, 56-60
tundra, 5, 57, 58-60
vegetation, 5, 28, 58
construction activities, 49
cost of pollution, 144
dust, 65, 68, 78, 79, 80, 95
human health, 73, 144, 151, 153
injection wells, 73
oil spills, 101, 103-104
permafrost, 41, 65, 68, 78
polar bears and seals, oil spills, 103-104
regulatory controls, 88, 237-238, 240
research methods, 73
research recommendations, 10, 73, 151, 152
vegetation impacts, 8, 78, 79, 80, 88, 95, 96
climate warming, 5, 28, 58
visual impacts of pollutants, 73
Air transport, 4, 19, 40, 44
airstrips, Aeromap analysis, 193-194, 197-204
(passim)
birds, 121, 123
grizzly bears, hunter access, 118
historical perspectives, 171- 172
polar bears and seals, noise, 104
projections, 56
Alaska Department of Environmental
Conservation (ADEC), 92, 94, 188,
213,218,219,220,226,227,228,
237-239
Alaska Department of Fish and Game (ADF&G),
127, 235, 236-237
Alaska Department of Natural Resources
(ADNR), 92, 93, 95, 176, 188, 235-
236
Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission, 136, 156
Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, 4, 22, 33,
133-134, 148, 156, 178
Alaska Natives, 4, 5, 13,20, 133, 132-149, 156-157
see also Arctic Slope Regional Corporation;
Human health; Subsistence
adaptation effects,8, 132,147-148, 156, 158-159
cash economy, transition to, 49, 132, 146,
147, 158-159
oil production levels, 147, 148
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR),
134, 136, 139, 140, 145-146, 148, 156
Arctic Slope Regional Corporation (ASRC),
4, 22, 49, 53, 134, 143-144, 147-148,
156, 174, 179-180
coastal communities, 19, 20, 124-135, 136
education, 23, 146-147
food contamination, 1, 13
employment, 4, 20, 23, 103, 142, 143-144,
146-147, 148
cash economy, transition to, 49, 132, 146,
147, 158-159
health, 1, 9-10, 13
whaling, hunter safety, 100, 135, 136, 156
historical perspectives,
oil, uses of, 32, 167-168
population growth/composition, 19, 20
social environment, general, 4, 19, 20-23,
132-136
subsistence and other economic emphases,
20
traditional knowledge, 16-17, 18, 56-57,
100, 102, 135, 132, 136, 149, 151,
232-233
Western contacts, 20
277
ice cellars, 56-57, 135
income, 4, 20, 23
landscape, spiritual impacts, 8, 137
leasing, 178
population demographics, 19, 20, 23, 25
racism, 146-147
restoration requirements, 93
socioeconomic factors, 8, 9, 20, 23, 103, 135,
139, 141-143
see also Subsistence; "employment" above
adaptation effects, 8, 132, 147-148, 158-
159
cash economy, transition to, 49, 132,
146, 147, 158-159
oil production levels, 147, 148
historical perspectives, 4, 19, 20-23, 132-
136
income, 4, 20, 23
redistribution of wealth, 49
traditional knowledge, 16-17, 18, 56-57, 100,
102, 132, 135, 136, 149, 151,
232-233
wilderness and wildlands, 8, 137, 140; see
also "Arctic National Wildlife
Refuge" above
Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation Commission,
71, 229, 237-238
Alaska Permanent Fund, 144
Algae, 30, 31, 130-132
Animals, see Fish and fisheries; Insects;
Wildlife; Wildlife food and feeding;
Wildlife habitat; Wildlife
reproductive behavior
Aquatic ecosystems, 30-31
see also Coastal zones; Fish and fisheries;
Freshwater environments; Lakes;
Marine environments and organisms;
Rivers and streams; Water quality;
Wetlands
Arctic cisco, 123-125, 128, 129, 130
Arctic Drilling Platform, 185
Arctic Foothills, 25, 28, 29, 39
Arctic foxes, 20, 30, 89, 117, 119
Arctic grayling, 22, 124, 125, 126, 129, 130, 138
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278
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR), 8, 24,
39, 56, 134, 155-156
caribou, 106, 107, 110, 115-116, 148, 156
economic value, 145-146, 242-245
historical perspectives, discovery/
development of oil, 168, 172, 178-
179
lesser snow geese, 122
legislation, 56
map of, 140
mineral resources, other than hydrocarbon, 56
projections of future oil/gas activities, 51, 52,
54, 56, 145-146, 181
seals, 105
seismic exploration, 178- 179
trails, vegetation impacts, 82, 86, 96, 139
social impacts, Alaska Natives, 134, 136, 139,
140, 145-146, 148, 156
Arctic Ocean, 4, 24, 26, 27, 30
climate warming, 57
Arctic Slope Regional Corporation (ASRC), 4,
22, 49, 53, 134, 143-144, 147-148,
156, 174, 179-180
Areas of special importance, 76, 77, 96, 97
Army Corps of Engineers, 91-92, 128, 230-231,
239, 240
B
Barrier islands, 4, 24, 26-27, 225
Barrow Arch, 24, 26, 53, 54, 55, 170, 174, 180,
181, 224
Bears, see Grizzly bears; Polar bears
Beaufort Sea, 24, 26, 27, 30-31, 74, 103
benthic communities, 130, 131
coal reserves, 60
fish, 124, 129
geomophology, 25
gravel causeways/islands, 40, 49, 74, 129
historical perspectives, 172, 174, 177
oil spills, 180, 220-224, 225, 226
permitted discharges, 74
phytoplankton, 4, 30-31
projected activities, 52, 54, 60
sea ice structure, 48-49
seals and polar bears, 104, 105, 106
whales, 17, 99, 100, 103
zooplankton, 4, 31, 130, 131
Beluga whales, 4, 57, 99, 105
Benthic invertebrates, 4, 30, 31, 73, 129, 130-
131, 153
Bering Sea, 27
fish, 124
polar beers, 103
seals and walrus, 100, 103
whale populations, 4, 17, 98, 99
Bering Strait, 26, 99
Birds, 30, 31, 118-123
see also Shorebirds; Waterfowl
bird mounds, 89
black brants, 121, 122
eiders, 121-122
lesser snow geese, 122
loons,4, 119-120
pingo habitat, 89
INDEX
population dynamics, 6, 118-119, 157-158
predators,
of birds, 30, 89, 117, 119, 122, 123, 157
raptors, 30, 119, 122-123
snow geese, 122
subsistence hunting, 22
tundra, 30, 119, 120-121
tundra swan, 120-121
Black brants, 121, 122
Bowhead whales, 1, 8, 10, 13, 17, 20, 64, 99-103
oil spills, 10, 100-103, 105
noise, 100-104 (passim), 136, 153
seismic, 100, 102, 103, 135, 136, 144-145,
156
seasonal factors, 99-100, 156
social impacts, 135, 156
stock, numbers, 99
subsistence hunting, 21, 22, 135, 136, 137,
144-145, 157
Bridges, 129, 196, 197, 202, 204, 206
Broad whitefish, 123, 125, 128, 129, 130
Brooks Range, 25, 53-54
birds, 122-123
caribou, 106, 109, 115, 116
coal reserves, 60
Long Term Ecological Research program, 151
natural gas reserves, 53-54, 55
oil reserves, 53, 54
projected developments, 53, 54, 55
wildlife population dynamics, 99
Bureau of Land Management, 54, 62
restoration of sites, 91, 92, 95
wilderness and wildlands, 140, 141
Bureau of Mines, 167
C
Caribou, 6, 106-117, 153
Aeromap analysis, 197, 204
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR),
106, 107, 110, 115-116, 148, 156
Brooks Range, 106, 109, 115, 116
coastal areas, 6, 106, 107, 108, 111, 112, 113,
115-116, 135-136, 148, 156
Colville-Canning Province, 106-116 (passim),
158
exploration activities, 115, 109- 111, 115- 116
seismic, 108-109
forage and foraging, 106-108 (passim), 112-
116 (passim)
habitat, 106- 117 (pas sim), 144- 145
infrastructure, 136; see also "pipelines" and
"roads" below
maps of ranges, 107, 113
mineral developments, not hydrocarbons, 115
National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska, 106, 109,
116
pingo habitat, 89
pipelines, 106, 110-111, 116, 138
crossings, 43, 47, 197, 204
population dynamics, 6, 106-107, 110, 111,
114-115
predators of, 112
Prudhoe Bay, 6, 106, 107, 108, 111, 112, 113,
115, 116
recreational hunting, 108, 138
remote sensing, 47
reproductive behavior, 6, 98, 106-108
(passim), 110-117 (passim), 153, 158
research recommendations, 10, 116-117, 153
roads, 106, 110-111, 116
snow cover, 108
spatial domain, 107, 111, 113, 144-145
subsistence hunting, 20, 22, 106, 108, 135-
136, 138, 144, 148
summer insect harassment, 6, 107, 111, 115,
116, 117
vegetation consumption, 88
Carnivores, see Predators
Cartography, see Maps and mapping
Causeways, 40, 44, 49, 65, 127-131 (passim),
196
Aeromap analysis, 196-206 (passim)
Beaufort Sea, 40, 49, 74, 129
Chukchi Sea, 26, 27, 30, 135, 158, 174, 177,
178, 179
bowhead whales, 99
fish, 124
oil spills, 224
seals and walrus, 103
Clean Air Act, 240
Clean Water Act, 73, 91-92, 150, 239, 240
National Pollution Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES), 74-75, 239
Climate, 2, 5, 19
see also Seasonal factors; Snowfall/cover;
Temperature factors
burning of oil, 13
climate warming, ix, 5, 13, 51, 56-60
ice processes, 5, 57, 58
marine mammals, 105, 106
nonnative plant species, 80
permafrost, 5, 58-60
precipitation, 57, 58
projected resource development, 51, 56-60
transportation, 19, 77, 80
tundra, 5, 57, 58-60
vegetation, 5, 28, 58
Coal, 60-62
reserves, ix, 12
Coalbed methane, 61, 62
Coast Guard, 239
Coastal Zone Management Act, 93, 240
Coastal zones, 1, 3, 4, 30, 238-239
see also Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
Alaska Natives, communities, 19, 20, 124-
135, 136
arctic foxes, 117
barrier islands, 4, 24, 26-27, 225
benthic invertebrates, 4, 30, 31, 73, 129, 130-
131
bird mounds, 89
caribou, 6, 106, 107, 108, 111, 112, 113, 115-
116, 135-136, 148, 156
climate warming, 59
Coastal Zone Management Act, 93, 240
deltas, 4, 26, 120, 122, 123, 127
fish, 10, 124-125, 127-129
geomorphology, 24, 25
gravel causeways, see Causeways
historical perspectives, discovery of oil, 32,167
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INDEX
ice processes, 25
lagoons, 4, 25, 30
lakes and ponds, 19, 25, 30
oil spills, 134-135, 156, 223, 238-239
permafrost, 59-60, 65
pingo habitat, 89
rivers and streams, 25, 26, 30, 31
deltas, 4, 26, 120, 122, 123, 127
seismic trails, 82, 157
subsistence, 20-22, 135-136, 148, 156
vegetation, 28-29, 82, 89, 95
waste disposal, 74
water withdrawals, 10, 48, 49
wave and wind action, 4, 26
wetlands, 3, 4, 19, 91-92, 238, 239
Colville-Canning Province, 155
caribou, 106- 116 (passim), 158
fish, 123-125 (passim), 127, 128, 129, 153
historical perspectives, 172, 175, 177
natural gas reserves, 53
oil reserves, 52, 53, 172
water withdrawals, 153
Communication
climatic effects, 19
social isolation, 4, 5, 13, 20, 23, 24, 132, 135,
137-138
Costs and cost-benefit factors, 10-11, 141-146, 159
air pollution, 144
future developments, prediction, 182
market price for oil, 51, 52, 134, 144, 145,
181, 242-245
ice roads and pads, 36-37
rehabilitation of disturbed sites, 9, 93, 94-95,
96, 150
research methods, ix, 10- 11, 132- 133, 145,
150, 152, 242-245
social/living needs, 133-134, 139-140
transportation/cost of living, 4-5, 20, 135
spills, 76
Trans-Alaska Pipeline, 134
Court cases, see Litigation
Cultural factors, see Alaska Natives; Social
factors and impacts; Subsistence
Culverts, 44, 74, 78, 117, 125, 126, 129, 156
Aeromap analysis, 196, 197, 202, 204, 206
Cumulative effects
see also Air quality; Alaska Natives; Aquatic
ecosystems; Climate; Human health;
Oil spills; Spills, other than oil;
Terrestrial environment; Vegetation;
Wildlife; specific biota, environments,
human effects, and oil and gas
activities
assessment methods, 2, 15
projections, 2, 155
research methods, 2, 13-15
D
Dalton Highway, 23, 35, 44, 56, 77, 78, 95, 106,
110, 111, 138, 211
Databases
contaminated sites, 94
geographic information systems, 151
spatial, ecosystem and wildlife, 97
Deltas, 4, 26
279
Department of Commerce
National Marine Fisheries Service, 17, 240
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, 13, 17, 240
whales, 17
Department of the Interior
see also Bureau of Land Management;
Minerals Management Service
Bureau of Mines, 167
Environmental Studies Program, 13
outer continental shelf, 13, 54
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 74, 88, 96,
104-105, 188, 240, 241
U.S. Geological Survey, 54, 56, 62, 145, 168,
171, 172, 180, 242
Development of oil resources, general, 33, 38-
40, 134
see also Drilling and well operations; Leasing;
Reserves; Waste production and
disposal
birds, 118-122 (passim)
fish, 125-129
caribou, 115-116
permafrost, 38, 64
projection of oil/gas development activities,
ix, 51-63, 180-182
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR),
51, 52, 54, 56, 145-146, 181
cost factors, 182
infrastructure, 56, 155
market price for oil, 51, 52, 134, 144, 145,
181, 242-245
regulatory activities, 51, 155
roads, 56, 57
spills, 220
sea ice structure, 48-49
social impacts, 134, 136-147
Diesel fuel, 47, 60, 76, 90, 96, 209
Directional drilling, 68-69, 186
DNR, see Alaska Department of Natural
Resources
Drilling and well operations, 32, 94, 237
see also Injection wells
bowhead whales, noise and waste, 100-104
(passim), 136, 153
caribou, 109
development, 38
directional drilling, 68-69, 186
exploration, 8, 35-38, 42, 44, 46-47, 53, 74,
100, 109, 169, 170, 173-175, 176,
178, 179-180, 185-187
historical perspectives, 35-38, 169, 170, 175,
176, 178, 179-180, 210, 212-213,
225-226
oil spills, 210, 212-213, 224, 225-227
pads, 15, 38, 40, 42, 43, 45, 46-47, 48, 56, 65,
68-69, 74, 77, 78, 90, 95, 96, 129,
139, 188-189
Aeromap analysis, 194-207 (passim)
costs, 36-37
ice roads and pads, 10, 35, 36, 44, 56, 88,
89, 96, 97, 127, 153
oil spills, 47, 74, 77, 78, 90, 96, 189, 208,
213, 218, 219
vegetation, 64, 76, 95
water quality, 73
permafrost, 25, 68-70
platforms, 47, 49, 51, 92, 94, 95, 100, 177,
185
sea ice structure, 48-49
technological innovations, 185-187
directional drilling, 68-69, 186
wastes, 37-38, 40, 41-42, 70-71, 74, 78, 188
see also Injection wells
bowhead whales, 100
injection, 41, 42, 47, 69, 70-73, 77, 131,
188, 240
rehabilitation, 94
water consumption, general, 40, 47
water withdrawal 9, 10, 69-70, 73, 153
coastal zones, 10, 48, 49
freshwater fish habitat, 126- 127, 130
seawater, 48
wildlife habitat, 10, 98
Earthquakes, 134
Economic factors, ix, 1, 12, 141-147
see also Costs and cost-benefit factors;
Employment; Funding; Leasing;
Socioeconomic factors; Subsistence
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR),
145-146, 242-245
Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, 4, 22,
33, 133-134, 148, 156, 178
Arctic Slope Regional Corporation (ASRC),
4, 22, 49, 53, 134, 143-144, 147-148,
156, 174, 179-180
coal production, 12
market price for oil, 51, 52, 134, 144, 145,
181, 242-245
recreation resources, 141-143, 145
redistribution of wealth, 49
research and assessment methods, 2, 132- 133,
145, 242-245
restoration of disturbed sites, 9, 93, 94-95, 96,
150
taxation, 23, 49, 143, 144, 147, 148, 242
state royalties, 133, 143, 144
Westernization, 20
wilderness and wildlands, value of, 141- 143,
145
wildlife values, 98, 140-141, 142; see also
Subsistence
Education, 23, 49-50
Alaska Natives, 23, 146-147
employment and, 146-147
transmission of disease, arctic foxes, 117
Eiders, 121-122
EISs, see Environmental impact statements
Electric power, 40-41, 43
coal-fired generation, transmission lines, 60
transmission lines, Aeromap analysis, 196,
203, 205, 207
Employment, 13, 20, 23, 49, 142, 148
Alaska Natives, 4, 20, 23, 103, 142, 143-144,
146-147, 148
cash economy, transition to, 49, 132, 146,
147, 158-159
oil industry, 23, 142, 143-144, 146-147, 148
OCR for page 280
280
Endangered and threatened species, 1, 142, 154
see also Bowhead whales
plants, 89-90, 96
wildlife,
birds, 120, 121-122
polar beers, 103
population dynamics, 98-99
Endangered Species Act, 121, 154, 240
Enhanced oil recovery, 47, 187-188
Environmental impact statements (EISs), 2, 13,
14, 87, 212, 213
social impacts, 132, 134
Environmental Protection Agency, 150, 239-240
see also National Environmental Policy Act
compensatory mitigation, 92
general permit, 74
hazardous waste regulations, 41
National Pollution Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES), 74-75, 239
Environmental Studies Program, 13
Exploration, 35-38, 47, 52-56
see also Drilling and well operations; Leasing;
Reserves; Seismic exploration
Aeromap analysis, 191-207 (passim)
caribou, 115, 109-111, 115-116
historical perspectives, 32, 35-38, 132-134,
167-180, 182, 191
seeps, 32, 167-168
projection of oil/gas development activities,
ix, 51-63, 180-182
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR),
51, 52, 54, 56, 145-146, 181
cost factors, 182
infrastructure, 56, 155
market price for oil, 51, 52, 134, 144, 145,
181, 242-245
regulatory activities, 51, 155
roads, 56, 57
spills, 220
sea ice structures, 48-49
seeps,
environmental impacts, 73, 77, 119
historical perspectives, 32, 167-168
Exxon Valdez, 100, 134-135
F
Federal government, 13
see also Funding; Legislation and regulation;
specific departments and agencies
Federal Water Pollution Control Act, see Clean
Water Act
Fish and fisheries, 123- 130, 236, 238
see also Marine mammals; Lakes and ponds;
Rivers and streams
Arctic cisco, 123-125, 128, 129, 130
Arctic grayling, 22, 124, 125, 126, 129, 130,
138
broad whitefish, 123, 125, 128, 129, 130
coastal zones, 10, 124-125, 127-129
Colville-Canning Province, 123-125 (passim),
127, 128, 129, 153
diadromous, 4, 64, 123-125, 127-129, 130,
236
INDEX
drainage patterns, 126
freshwater, 4, 10, 31, 123, 124-130
diadromous species, 4, 64, 123-125, 127-
129, 130, 236
ice processes, 124, 126, 129
lakes and ponds, 4, 10, 31, 10, 123- 127,
129, 130, 153
water withdrawals, 10, 98, 126-127, 129,
130, 153
gravel habitat, 126- 130 (passim)
marine,4,31, 123
climate warming, 57
diadromous species, 4, 64, 123-125, 127-
129, 130, 236
predators, 57
migratory, 4, 13, 64, 123-125, 127-129
diadromous species, 4, 64, 123-125, 127-
129, 130, 236
number of species, 4, 31
offshore activities, 123, 124, 125, 128, 129
recreational fishing, 138
seismic exploration, 127, 129
subsistence fishing, 22, 123, 129, 132, 134
waste discharges, 73
Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, 241
Flooding
fish impeded by control structures, 128- 129
icejamming, 4
roads, vegetation impacts, 5, 78, 80, 81, 95
Floodplains
gravel mining, 35, 74, 89, 90, 129
river corridor vegetation, 88-89
road excavation, 81
Food, human
see also Subsistence
cost of, 20
drinking water, 42, 70, 72, 240
food contamination, 1, 13, 151
Forest Resources Practices Act (Alaska), 236
Foxes, 20, 30, 89, 119
Freshwater environments, 3-4, 26, 30, 73-74
see also Hydrology; Ice processes; Lakes and
ponds; Rivers and streams
climate warming, 58
fish habitat, 4, 10, 31, 123, 124-130
diadromous species, 4, 64, 123-125, 127-
129, 130, 236
ice processes, 124, 126, 129
lakes and ponds, 4, 10, 31, 10, 123- 127,
129, 130, 153
water withdrawals, 10, 98, 126-127, 129,
130, 153
oil spills, 223
water spills, 229
Funding, 13
Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, 4, 22,
33, 133-134, 148, 156, 178
Alaska Permanent Fund, 144
committee study at hand, 1, 13
polar bears, impacts on, 106
restoration, 95, 96
seals, impacts on, 104, 106
social programs, 133- 134, 139- 140
tax base, 23, 49, 143, 144, 147, 148, 242
state royalties, 133, 143, 144
G
Gas, natural, see Coalbed methane; Natural gas
Gas hydrate, 62
Geographic information systems, 151
Geography
see also Maps and mapping
committee study domain, 14, 15, 155-156
extent of Alaska National Wildlife Refuge,
140
extent of Brooks Range Foothills Belt, 53
extent of Colville-Canning Province, 53
extent of North Slope, ix, 2, 3, 12-13, 24, 39
extent of North Slope Borough, 23
extent of outer continental shelf, 54
historical perspectives, 168
marine environments, 26
Geological Survey see U.S. Geological Survey
Geology, 3, 24, 25-27, 235, 236
see also Seismic exploration
coastal zone geomorphology, 24, 25
historical perspectives, 168-169, 172-173,
174-175, 177-179
subsidence, 28, 65, 70, 72
surface ballooning, 73
Global warming, see Climate
Gravel-covered areas, 9, 10, 13, 15
see also Causeways; Roads and gravel pads
Aeromap analysis, 44, 46, 190-207 (passim)
algae, 131
bird habitat, 89, 119
drainage patterns, 74, 126
fish habitat, 126- 130 (pas sim)
historical perspectives, 38, 40, 43-47
islands, artificial, 27, 40, 44, 45, 60, 74, 93,
156
Aeromap analysis, 194, 198, 201, 203, 205,
207
oil spills, 208
mining, 15, 35, 44, 46, 47, 48, 56, 68, 74, 90,
95, 129, 188, 195
floodplains, 35, 74, 89, 90, 129
rivers, 74, 89, 90, 129, 195, 197, 203, 205,
207
pads, 15, 38, 40, 42, 43, 44, 45, 47, 56, 65,
68-69, 74, 77, 78, 90, 95, 96, 129,
139, 188-189
Aeromap analysis, 194-207 (passim)
oil spills, 47, 74, 77, 78, 90, 96, 189, 208,
213, 218, 219
permafrost, 25, 64-65, 68-69, 89
pingos, 25, 89
projection of development activities, 56
rehabilitation/restoration, 90-95, 158, 195
tundra, gravel damage, 35, 188-189, 190-207
(passim)
vegetation impacts, 64, 76, 77, 78, 95
rehabilitation and restoration, 90-95
waste disposal, reserve pits, 28, 42, 76, 94,
188
Grizzly bears, 4, 117- 118
human safety, 118
pingo habitat, 89
recreational hunting, 118, 138
Guidelines and Principles for Social Impact
Assessment, 132
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INDEX
H
Health, see Human health
Heated buildings, 65, 68
Herbivores, 4, 30, 31, 58, 88
see also Caribou; Muskoxen
Historical perspectives, 15, 32-50, 167- 182
see also Projections
Aeromap analysis, 197-207
air transport, 171-172
Alaska Natives,
see also "social environment" below
oil, uses of, 32, 167-168
population growth/composition, 19, 20
social environment, general, 4, 19, 20-23,
132-136
subsistence and other economic emphases,
20
traditional knowledge, 16-17, 18, 56-57,
100, 102, 135, 132, 136, 149, 151,
232-233
Western contacts, 20
Beaufort Sea, 172, 174, 177
caribou herd size, 6
coastal zones, 32, 167
Colville-Canning Province, 172, 175, 177
cumulative effects, assessment methods, 2, 15
drilling and well operations, 35-38, 169, 170,
175, 176, 178, 179-180, 210, 212-
213, 225-226
exploration, 32, 35-38, 132-134, 167-180,
182, 191
seeps, 32, 167-168
gravel-covered areas, 38, 40, 43-47
infrastructure, 5, 32-46 (passim), 49, 155-156
leasing, 33, 35, 49-50, 172-179 (passim)
mapping, 168-169
National Historic Preservation Act, 241
National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska, 32, 33,
39, 44, 46, 172, 174, 177
oil and gas activities, overview, ix, 1, 5, 12,
20, 22-23, 32-50, 167-182, 208
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR),
168, 172, 178-179
oil spills, 48, 100, 134, 208-215, 225-227
production levels, ix, 1, 12
recreational fishing/hunting, 138
research, ix, 90-91
restoration of disturbed sites, 90-91
road impacts on vegetation, 77-78, 80-81
saline spills, 229-230
seismic exploration, 169, 173-174, 177-179
seismic trails, vegetation impacts, 81
social environment, 4, 19, 20-23, 132- 136
population growth/composition, 19, 20
subsistence activities, 20, 21-22, 135
technological innovation, ix, 46-47, 169, 174-
175
whaling, 20, 21-22, 99
Horizontal drilling, see Directional drilling
Human environment, see Economic factors;
Education; Employment; Social
factors and impacts; Socioeconomic
factors; Subsistence
Human health, 139-140, 148, 149
air pollutants, 73, 144, 151, 153
281
drinking water, 42, 70, 72, 240
bear interactions, 103, 118
research recommendations, 9- 10, 149, 151-
152
subsistence food contamination, 1, 13, 151
transmission of disease, arctic foxes, 117
whaling, subsistence hunter safety, 100, 135,
136, 156
Hunting, 5, 138
see also Subsistence
elevated pipelines, 68
recreational, 77, 118, 138, 139, 171
arctic foxes, 20
caribou, 108, 138
fishing, 138
grizzly beers, 118, 138
road access, 77, 118
seals and polar bears, 103, 104
whaling, commercial, 17, 18, 20, 21-22, 99,
100
Hydrology, see Flooding; Freshwater
environments; Ice processes; Lakes
and ponds; Rivers and streams
l
Ice processes, 3-4
see also Permafrost
caribou foraging, 108
climate change, 5, 57, 58
climate warming, 56-57
coastal, 25
diadromous fish, 124
freshwater fish, 124, 126, 129
lakes and ponds, 24, 25, 26, 73-74
oil spills, 7, 9, 74, 130, 158, 218, 220-222,
223, 227
sea ice, 27, 30, 57, 59-60, 74, 105
seals and polar bears, 104
subsistence hunting, 103
traditional ice cellars, 56-57, 135
Ice roads and pads, 10, 35, 36-37, 44, 48, 56, 88,
89, 96, 97, 127, 153
Ice-wedge polygons, 24, 25, 58, 65-67, 79
Infrastructure, general, 5, 9, 32-50 (passim), 155-
156, 235-241
see also Aeromap analysis and aerial
photography; Drilling and well
operations; Pipelines; Rehabilitation
and restoration; Roads and gravel
pads; Ships, including tankers;
Storage facilities; Technological
innovation; Transportation
caribou, 136
climate change, 5, 59
electric power, 40-41, 43, 60, 196, 203, 205,
207
heated buildings, 65, 68
historical perspectives, 5, 32-46 (passim), 49,
155-156
maps, 6-7, 33-34, 36, 37, 39, 113
North Slope Borough, capital improvements,
23
permafrost, 3, 25, 59, 64-65, 68-69
platforms, 47, 49, 51, 92, 94, 95, 100, 177, 185
projections, 56, 155
social impacts, 132, 133, 136-147, 156-157
tax revenues, 147-148
terminal facilities, 40, 208, 238
wilderness, impacts on, 5, 140-141, 148
zones of influence, 9, 42, 152-153, 158
Injection wells, 40, 69, 70, 72, 228, 229, 240
air pollutant releases, 73
marine environment, 72-73
natural gas, 209
permafrost, 71, 72, 188
spills, 70, 71-72, 73, 228, 229
surface ballooning, 73
waste disposal, 41, 42, 47, 69, 70-73, 77, 131,
188, 240
Insects, 4
bird predators of, 30
regulatory controls, 236
summer harassment of caribou, 6, 107, 111,
115, 116, 117
tundra, other, 29-30
International perspectives, market price for oil,
51, 52, 134, 144, 145, 181, 242-245
International Tundra Experiment, 58
International Whaling Commission (IWC), 17
Invertebrates, 98, 153
see also Benthic invertebrates; Zooplankton
K
Kelp, 4, 31, 130
L
Lagoons, 4, 25, 30
Lakes and ponds, 3, 24, 26, 73-74
birds, 119, 120
coastal, 19, 25, 30
drainage patterns, 74
freshwater fish, 4, 10, 31, 10, 123-127, 129,
130, 153
ice processes, 24, 25, 26, 73-74
Long Term Ecological Research program, 151
permafrost, 25, 68, 72
road construction and use, 80
seasonal factors, 26, 73-74
waste injection, 72
water withdrawals, 10, 98, 126-127, 129, 130,
153
Landscape, see Rehabilitation and restoration;
Visual resources
Leasing, 132, 140, 148, 235, 236, 237, 241
historical perspectives, 33, 35, 49-50, 172-179
(passim)
restoration of sites and, 95
schedules, 52
state lands, 5, 133, 143, 144, 172
Legislation and regulation, 5, 9, 11, 235-241
see also Environmental Protection Agency;
Leasing
air quality, 88, 237-238, 240
Alaska Department of Environmental
Conservation (ADEC), 92, 94, 188,
213,218,219,220,226,227,228,
237-239
OCR for page 282
282
INDEX
Alaska Department of Fish and Game
(ADF&G), 127, 235, 236-237
Alaska Department of Natural Resources
(ADNR), 92, 93, 95, 176, 188, 235-
236
Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission, 136,
156
Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation
Act, 140
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, 56
Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act, 4, 22,
33, 133-134, 148, 156, 178
Alaska Oil and Gas Conservation
Commission, 71, 229, 237-238
Army Corps of Engineers, 91-92, 128, 230-
231,239,240
causeway construction, 128
Clean Air Act, 240
Clean Water Act, 73, 91-92, 150, 239, 240
National Pollution Discharge Elimination
System (NPDES), 74-75, 239
Coastal Zone Management Act, 93, 240
Coast Guard, 239
committee recommendations, 8- 11 (passim)
Endangered Species Act, 121, 154, 240
environmental impact statements (EISs), 2,
13, 14, 87, 212, 213
Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, 241
floodplain developments, 129
Forest Resources Practices Act (Alaska), 236
gravel mining, 129
information dissemination, 49
marine discharges, 74-75
marine mammals, 103, 104, 136, 241
Marine Mammal Protection Act, 103, 104, 241
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries
Act, 241
Migratory Bird Treaty Act, 241
National Historic Preservation Act, 241
National Ocean Pollution Planning Act, 240
National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska
Production Act, 141
Naval Petroleum Production Act, 171
off-road travel, 7, 35
Oil Pollution Act, 214, 226
oil reserve claims under laws governing other
minerals, 167
oil spills, 74, 213, 214, 215, 238, 215, 216,
218, 225-227, 237-239
projections of future oil/gas activities, 51, 155
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act, 41,
188
restoration requirements, 8, 91-93, 95, 96, 158
Safe Drinking Water Act, 72, 240
saline spills, 228
seismic exploration, 7, 84, 127, 153, 156
Solid Waste Disposal Act, 240
Statehood Act (Alaska), 172
storage facilities, 237, 238
Toxic Substances Control Act, 240
Trans-Alaskan Pipeline Authorization Act, 134
tundra travel permits, 84
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), 74, 88,
96, 104-105, 188, 240, 241
waste disposal, 41, 42, 70, 71, 72, 74, 91-92,
128, 188, 230-231, 237, 239, 240
water withdrawals, 10, 127, 129, 236
wetland restoration, 91-92, 238, 239
wilderness, 140-141
Wilderness Act, 140-141
wildlife, 56, 103, 104, 121, 136, 154, 235,
236-237, 238, 240, 241
Alaska Department of Fish and Game
(ADF&G), 127, 235, 236-237
Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission, 136,
156
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, 56
Endangered Species Act, 121, 154, 240
Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, 241
Migratory Bird Treaty Act, 241
marine mammals, 103, 104, 136, 241
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), 74,
88, 96, 104-105, 188, 240, 241
Lesser snow geese, 122
Lichens, 77, 88, 96, 97, 108
Light Automated Drilling Systems, 187
Litigation
oil spills, 225, 237
restoration requirements, 93, 94
Long Term Ecological Research program, 151
Loons, 4, 119- 120
Mammals, 30
see also Caribou; Grizzly bears; Polar bears;
Marine mammals
arctic foxes, 20, 30, 89, 119
muskoxen, 4, 48, 117
Maps and mapping
Aeromap analysis and aerial photography, 44,
46, 190-207
exploration activities, historical, 169
road impacts, 80, 81, 110
seismic exploration, 81-82, 85
Arctic coast, 168
caribou ranges, 107, 113
coal and coalbed methane, 61
field and units, 39
historical perspectives, 168-169
North Slope region, 3, 12
oil production activities and facilities, 6-7, 33-
34,36,37,39, 113
Marine environments and organisms, 4, 26-27,
72-75
see also Coastal zones; Fish and fisheries;
Marine mammals
algae, 30, 31, 130-132
benthic invertebrates, 4, 30, 31, 73, 129, 130-
131, 153
climate warming, 57-58
injection wells, 72-73
kelp, 4, 31, 130
phytoplankton, 4, 30-31, 57, 130
spills, 74
zooplankton, 4, 31, 57, 130, 131
Marine Mammal Protection Act, 103, 104, 241
Marine mammals, general, 4, 9, 99-106
see also Bowhead whales; Polar bears; Seals;
Whales
climate warming, 105, 106
Marine Mammal Protection Act, 103, 104, 241
noise, 13, 48, 99, 103, 104
research recommendations, 10, 98, 103, 106,
153
subsistence hunting, other than whales, 20, 22,
103
Marine Protection, Research, and Sanctuaries
Act, 241
Measurement-while-drilling, 186- 187
Metals, reserves, 62-63
Methodology, see Research methods;
Technological innovation
Migratory Bird Treaty Act, 241
Migratory species, 1, 13
see also Bowhead whales; Caribou; Marine
mammals; Seals; Waterfowl; Whales
birds, general, 118-119, 241; see also
Waterfowl; specific species under
Birds
construction of infrastructure, 49
fish, 4, 13, 64, 123-125, 127-129
diadromous, 4, 64, 123-125, 127-129, 130,
236
freshwater use and redistribution, 48
population dynamics, 98-99
Mineral resources, not hydrocarbons
see also Coal; Natural gas
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, 56
Arctic Slope Regional Corporation (ASRC),
143-144, 147-148
caribou, impacts on, 115
coalbed methane, 61, 62
gas hydrate, 62
metals, 62-63, 115
offshore, 60, 63
oil reserve claims under laws governing other
minerals, 167
Minerals Management Service, 54, 91, 92, 177
oil spill estimates, 220
restoration of sites and, 91, 92, 95
Moose, subsistence hunting, 22
Mosses, 65, 77, 78, 88, 95, 220
Multilateral drilling, 186
Muskoxen, 4, 48, 117
N
National Environmental Policy Act, 2, 13-14, 33,
240
see also Environmental impact statements
social impacts, 132, 134
National Historic Preservation Act, 241
National Marine Fisheries Service, 240
whales, 17
National Oceanic and Atmospheric
Administration, 240
National Marine Fisheries Service, 17, 240
Outer Continental Shelf Environmental
Assessment Program, 13
National Ocean Pollution Planning Act, 240
National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska
base metals, 62
caribou, 106, 109, 116
freshwater fish, 127
historical perspectives, 32, 33, 39, 44, 46, 172,
174, 177
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INDEX
loons, 120
projected oil/gas activities, 52, 54-55, 62, 180
reserves in place, 52
restoration, 91, 92
road access, 138
seismic exploration, 178, 183
trails, 87, 157
wildlands, 141
wildlife population dynamics, general, 99
National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska Production
Act, 141
National Pollution Discharge Elimination System
(NPDES), 74-75, 239
National Science Foundation, 151
Native Alaskans, see Alaska Natives
Natural gas
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR), 51,
52, 54, 56
Brooks Range, 53-54, 55
injection wells, 209
pipelines, 40, 56
production, 209
projections of future activities, 51-55
(passim), 60, 181
reserves, ix, 12, 52, 53-56
spills, 69, 73
tax revenues, 147
Naval Arctic Research Laboratory, 170-171
Naval Petroleum Production Act, 171
Naval Petroleum Reserve, 32, 168, 169-170
Noise
see also Seismic exploration
air transport, 104
birds, 121, 123
bowhead whales, 100-104 (passim), 136, 153
seismic exploration, 100, 102, 103, 135,
136, 144-145, 156
construction, 49
marine mammals, general, 13, 44, 99, 103,
104
offshore activities, 5, 13, 48, 99, 103, 104, 153
seismic disturbance, 5-6, 10, 13, 48, 99,
100, 102, 103, 104, 105, 135, 136,
144-145, 156, 183
polar beers, 104
seals and polar bears, 103, 104
vessels, 58
whales, 10, 13, 17, 100-104 (passim), 136,
153
seismic exploration, 100, 102, 103, 135,
136, 144-145, 156
o
Off-road travel, 10, 40, 44, 153
ice roads and pads, 10, 35, 36-37, 44, 56, 88,
89, 96, 97, 127, 153
regulatory measures, 7, 35
roadless construction, 188-189
Rolligons, 185
seismic trail networks, 5, 7, 10, 44, 48, 81-88,
96, 153
coastal zones, 82, 157
historical perspectives, 81
seasonal closures, 85-86
283
social impacts, 139
tundra impacts, 5, 10, 13, 48, 157
Aeromap analysis, 197-206 (passim)
vegetation impacts, 5, 77-78, 84, 86, 139
wilderness, 139
Offshore activities, 8, 51, 54, 156, 167, 174, 175,
176, 177, 185
see also Causeways; Coastal zones; Ice
processes; Marine environments and
organisms; Ships, including tankers;
specific bodies of water
fish, 123, 124, 125, 128, 129
islands, artificial, 27, 40,44, 45, 60,74, 93, 156
Aeromap analysis, 194, 198, 201, 203, 205,
207
oil spills, 208
minerals other than hydrocarbons, 60, 63
National Pollution Discharge Elimination
System, 74-75, 239
noise, 5, 13, 48, 99, 103, 104, 153
seismic disturbance, 5-6, 10, 13, 48, 99,
100, 102, 103, 104, 105, 135, 136,
144-145, 156, 183
oil spills, 9, 105, 152, 156, 158, 208, 212,
215, 218-223, 226
ships, 58, 100-101, 134, 203, 208, 235
wind and wave action, 212, 215, 223, 226
Outer Continental Shelf (OCS),
federal 404 program, 91
historical perspectives, 175-177
projected activities, 54
pipelines, 68, 180, 208-209, 212
platforms, 47, 49, 51, 92, 94, 95, 100, 177,
185
rehabilitation of damage, 90
sea ice, 27, 30, 57, 59-60, 74, 105
seeps,
environmental impacts, 73, 77, 119
historical perspectives, 32, 167-168
social impacts, 134-135, 139-140, 148, 156,
158; see also "whaling, subsistence"
below
vegetation impacts, 77, 90, 91, 93, 95
whales, 17, 99
see also "noise" above
oil spills, 9, 10, 100-103, 105, 152
whaling, commercial, 17, 18, 20, 21-22, 99,
100
whaling, subsistence, 17-18, 21, 22, 99, 135-
136, 137, 144-145, 148, 153, 156, 157
hunter safety, 100, 135, 136, 156
wind and wave action, 27
oil spills, 212, 215, 223, 226
Oil Pollution Act, 214, 226
Oil shale, 168
Oil spill remediation, 7, 74, 100, 152, 216-220,
222, 223
benthic communities, 130
bioremediation, 77, 217, 219, 223
bowhead whales, 103
burning, 13, 77, 92, 218-219
chemical dispersants, 130, 219, 220, 222, 223,
226
coastal zones, 134-135, 156, 223, 238-239
cost of, 76
historical perspectives, 48, 100, 134, 208-215,
225-227
ice factors, 7, 9, 74, 130, 158, 218, 220-222,
223, 227
mechanical, 74, 217, 218, 219, 222
pumping, 219
remote sensing, 47, 184, 189, 219
social impacts, 134
thermal remediation, 77, 218-219, 222, 223;
see "burning" and "ice factors"
above
Oil spills, 6-7, 9, 47-48, 69, 73, 74, 96, 152, 158,
208-227
see also Oil spill remediation; Spills, other
than oil
benthic communities, 130
Beaufort Sea, 180, 220-224, 225, 226
bowhead whales, 10, 100- 103
Exxon Valdez, 100, 134
ice processes, 7, 9, 74, 130, 158, 218, 220-
222, 223, 227
litigation, 225, 237
offshore activities, 9, 105, 152, 156, 158, 208,
212, 215, 218-223, 226
ships, 58, 100-101, 134, 203, 208, 235
pipeline, 6-7, 47-48, 76, 158, 189, 208-220,
223-224, 225-226
plankton, 130
polar bears and seals, 103- 104, 105, 106
prevention, technological innovation, 214,
215-216, 217, 225-227
regulatory/statutory measures, 74, 213, 214,
215, 238, 215, 216, 218, 225-227,
237-239
remote sensing, 47, 184, 189, 219
research methods/recommendations, 152, 210,
214, 220
seasonal factors, 217-218, 221-223; see also
"ice processes" above
social impacts, 96, 134-135, 158
storage facilities, 208, 209, 212, 213, 216,
226, 238
technological innovation, 216-220, 225-227;
see various techniques above
tundra, 77, 213-214, 217-220 (passim), 223-
224
vegetation impacts, 76, 77, 90, 217-218, 224
vessels, 58, 100-101, 134, 203, 208, 235
well operations, 210, 212-213, 224, 225-227
whales, 9, 10, 100-103
wind and wave action, 212, 215, 223, 226
Outer Continental Shelf
see Offshore activities; Beaufort Sea; Bering
Sea; Prudhoe Bay
federal 404 program, 91
historical perspectives, 175-177
projected activities, 54
Outer Continental Shelf Assessment Project, 13
p
Peat, 65, 78, 192, 197, 200-207 (passim)
Permafrost, 3, 24-25, 64-69, 56, 95
see also Tundra
active layer, 24, 58, 59, 64, 65, 68, 78, 84
air pollution, 65, 68, 78
OCR for page 284
284
climate warming, 5, 57, 58-60
coastal zones, 59-60, 65
development activities, thawing, 38, 64, 78
drilling and well operation, 25, 68-70
gravel-covered areas, 25, 64-65, 68-69
heated buildings, 65, 68
ice-wedge polygons, 24, 25, 58, 65-67, 79
infrastructure, general, 3, 25, 59, 64-65, 68-69
pipelines, 71, 72, 188
injection wells, 71, 72, 188
lakes and ponds, 25, 68, 72
oil spills, 65
pingos, 25, 89, 96, 97
Prudhoe Bay, 24, 25, 59-60, 69
research methods, 64, 65
roads, 5, 25, 64-65, 68, 77-81 (passim), 95,
96-97
saltwater spills, 65
seasonal factors, 64-69
subsidence, permafrost thaws, 65, 70, 72
thermokarst, 3, 7, 25, 65
roads, 5, 68, 77-81 (passim), 95, 96-97
waste disposal, injection wells, 71, 72, 188
water quality, 71, 72, 188
Phytoplankton, 4, 30-31, 57, 130
Pingos, 25, 89, 96, 97
Pipelines, 3, 5, 42, 43, 44, 49, 157, 236
see also Trans-Alaska Pipeline
Aeromap analysis, 196-204 (passim), 206
caribou, 106, 110-111, 116, 138
crossings, 43, 47, 197, 204
coal transport, 60
gathering lines, 40, 53, 208
hunting, elevated lines, 68
offshore, 68, 180, 208-209, 212
oil spills, 6-7, 47-48, 76, 158, 189, 208-220,
223-224, 225-226
natural gas, 40, 56
permafrost, 65, 68
projected developments, 55, 56
saline spills, 47, 228-230
technological innovation, 47, 54, 189
visual resources, 68
Plankton, see Phytoplankton; Zooplankton
Plants, see Vegetation
Platforms, 47, 49, 51, 92, 94, 95, 100, 177, 185
Polar bears, 4, 6, 31, 48, 103-106
human safety, 103
Ponds, see Lakes and ponds
Population dynamics
see also Wildlife population dynamics
human population composition/growth, 19,
20,23
Precipitation, 24
see also Snowfall/cover
Predators, 6, 20, 30, 64, 157
see also Arctic foxes; Hunting; Marine
mammals; Polar bears; Subsistence
of birds, 30, 89, 117, 119, 122, 123, 157
of caribou, 112
of insects, 30
raptors, 30, 119, 122-123
river corridors, 88
Production levels, ix, 1, 12
see also Pipelines; Ships, including tankers;
Storage facilities
INDEX
Aeromap analysis, 191-207 (passim)
projection of oil/gas development activities,
ix, 51-63, 180-182
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR),
51, 52, 54, 56, 145-146, 181
cost factors, 182
infrastructure, 56, 155
market price for oil, 51, 52, 134, 144, 145,
181, 242-245
regulatory activities, 51, 155
roads, 56, 57
spills, 220
restoration of sites and, 95
social adaptation, 147, 148
Production phase, general, 40-42
see also Drilling and well operations;
Injection wells; Pipelines; Ships,
including tankers; Storage facilities
arctic foxes, 117
birds of concern, 118- 123
bowhead whales, noise, 100
caribou, 111, 115-116
fish, 125-129
historical perspectives, 32, 33, 40-42
loons, 120
projection of oil/gas development activities,
ix, 51-63, 180-182
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR),
51, 52, 54, 56, 145-146, 181
cost factors, 182
infrastructure, 56, 155
market price for oil, 51, 52, 134, 144, 145,
181, 242-245
regulatory activities, 51, 155
spills, 220
spills, 47, 208-210
technological innovations, enhanced oil
recovery, 47, 187-188, 187-189
Projections
see also Historical perspectives; Reserves
air transport, 56
Arctic Slope Regional Corporation (ASRC),
180
Beaufort Sea, 52, 54, 60
climate change, 51, 56-60
climate warming, ix, 5, 13, 51, 56-60
marine mammals, 105, 106
nonnative plant species, 80
permafrost, 5, 58-60
precipitation, 57, 58
projected resource development, 51, 56-60
tundra, 5, 57, 58-60
cumulative effects, general, 2, 155
fish habitat, 129
grizzly bears, 117-118
National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska, 52, 54-
55, 62, 180
natural gas, 51-55 (passim), 60, 181
oil/gas development activities, ix, 51-63, 180-
182
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR),
51, 52, 54, 56, 145-146, 181
cost factors, 182
infrastructure, 56, 155
market price for oil, 51, 52, 134, 144, 145,
181, 242-245
regulatory activities, 51, 155
roads, 56, 57
spills, 220
other mineral resources, 60-63
seal and polar bear populations, 104-105
uncertainty, 10, 153-154, 182
Prudhoe Bay, 5
see also Beaufort Sea
arctic foxes, 117
caribou, 6, 106, 107, 108, 111, 112, 113, 115,
116
fish, 124, 128-129, 130
fluid withdrawal, 69
geomorphology, 24, 25
injection of wastes, 71
historical perspectives, 12, 32, 35, 155, 168,
173, 174, 175, 177, 182, 213, 223,
225, 227
loons, 120
oil spills, 213, 223, 225, 227
permafrost, 24, 25, 59-60, 69
pingos, 89
research recommendations, 9, 151
restoration requirements, 92-93, 94
road network, 43-44, 77, 78, 79
saline spills, 230
social environment, 133, 134, 156
technological innovations, 54, 188
vegetation,
air quality, 88, 96
road disturbance, 77, 78
R
Raptors, 30, 119, 122-123
Reclamation, see Rehabilitation and restoration
Recreational resources, 5, 138
see also Hunting; Visual resources;
Wilderness and wildlands
feeding wildlife, 6
fishing, 138
economic value, 141-143, 145
road access, 77, 118
Regulatory issues, see Legislation and regulation
Rehabilitation and restoration, 7-8, 9, 13, 150
see also Oil spill remediation
Bureau of Land Management, 91, 92, 95
compensatory mitigation, 92
contaminated sites, 94-95
costs, 9, 93, 94-95, 96, 150
defined, 90
gravel-covered areas, 90-95, 158, 195
fish habitat, 126, 129
historical perspectives, 90-91
litigation, 93, 94
Minerals Management Service, 91, 92, 95
muskoxen, 117
National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska, 91, 92
production levels and, 95
regulatory measures, 8, 91-93, 95, 96, 158
wetlands, 91-92, 238, 239
research methods, 90-91, 150, 151
roads, 92
tundra, 90, 95
unrestored sites, 7-8, 49, 59, 94-95, 148, 158
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INDEX
vegetation, 76, 78, 80, 84, 86-87, 90-95, 96,
97, 219
wetlands, 91-92, 238, 239
Reindeer, 20, 110
Remote sensing, 47, 184, 189, 219
Reproductive behavior, see Wildlife reproductive
behavior
Research methods, 13
see also Environmental impact statements;
Projections; Statistical analyses
Aeromap analysis, 44, 46, 190-207
air quality measurement, 73
climate warming, 56-57, 58
committee study at hand, ix-x, 1-2, 10-11, 13,
14, 51, 64, 65, 132-133, 155
cost-benefit analyses, ix, 10- 11, 132- 133, 145,
150, 152, 242-245
cumulative effects, general, 2, 13-18
economic assessments, 2, 132-133, 145, 242-
245; see also "cost-benefit analyses"
above
historical perspectives, ix, 90-91
market price effects, 145, 242-245
oil spills, 152, 210, 214, 220
permafrost, 64, 65
projections of future oil/gas activities, 51, 52,
56-57, 155
uncertainty, 10, 153-154, 182
rehabilitation of disturbed sites, 90-91, 150, 151
seismic exploration, 86-87, 150
social and socioeconomic impacts, 9, 132-
133, 149
traditional knowledge, 16-17, 18, 56-57, 100,
102, 132, 135, 136, 149, 151, 232-233
uncertainty, 10, 153-154, 182
Research recommendations, 8-10, 150-154
air quality monitoring, 10, 73, 151, 152
caribou, 10, 116-117, 153
cost-benefit analysis, 152
fish, 130
marine mammals, 10, 98, 103, 106, 153
human health impacts, 9-10, 149, 151-152
oil spills, 152, 210, 214, 220
peer review, 151
rehabilitation of disturbed sites, 150, 151, 152
seismic exploration, 88, 10, 116, 153
social and economic impacts, 149, 151-152,
152
traditional knowledge, 151, 232-233
tundra, 151
uncertainty, 10, 153-154, 182
vegetation, 88, 96-97
waste injection, 73
water withdrawals, 153
wildlife impacts, 98, 150
Reserves
see also Leasing
coal, ix, 12
metals, 62-63
natural gas, ix, 1, 12, 52, 53-56
oil, 51, 52-56, 145, 172
see also National Petroleum Reserve-
Alaska
Naval Petroleum Reserve, 32, 168, 169-170
reserve claims under laws governing other
minerals, 167 tundra, 5, 77-78, 82-84, 95, 157
Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
(RCRA), 41, 188
Restoration, see Rehabilitation and restoration
Rivers and streams, 3, 26, 74
coastal zones, 25, 26, 30, 31
deltas, 4, 26, 120, 122, 123, 127
diadromous fish, 4, 64, 123-125, 127-129,
130, 236
freshwater fish, 4, 10, 31, 123-130 (passim),
236
flooding, general,
fish impeded by control structures, 128- 129
icejamming, 4
roads, vegetation impacts, 5, 78, 80, 81, 95
floodplains
gravel mining, 35, 74, 89, 90, 129
river corridor vegetation, 88-89
road excavation, 81
gravel mining, 74, 89, 90, 129, 195, 197, 203,
205, 207
icejamming and flooding, 4
ice processes, other, 26
loons, 120
pipeline spills, 47
seasonal factors, 4, 26
vegetation, 88-89
flooding, 5, 78, 80, 81, 95
water withdrawals, 10, 98
Roads and gravel pads, 5, 9, 40, 157
see also Causeways; Off-road travel
Aeromap analysis and aerial photography, 80,
81-82, 110, 190-206 (passim)
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR), 82,
86, 96, 139
bridges, 129, 196, 197, 202, 204, 206; see
also Causeways; "culverts" below
caribou, 106, 110-111, 116
coal transport, 60
culverts, 44, 74, 78, 117, 125,126,129, 156,196
fish habitat, 125- 126, 129
Dalton Highway, 23, 35, 44, 56, 77, 78, 95,
106, 110, 111
drainage patterns, 74
dust, 65, 68, 78, 79, 80, 81, 95
flooding, vegetation impacts, 5, 78, 80, 81, 95
historical perspectives, 35-37, 38, 40, 42-45, 57
hunter/recreationist access, 77, 118, 138
ice roads and pads, 10, 35, 36, 44, 48, 56, 88,
89, 96, 97, 184-185
lakes and ponds, 80
National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska, 138
peat, 65, 78, 192, 197, 200-207 (passim)
permafrost, 5, 25, 64-65, 68, 77-81 (passim),
95, 96-97
projections, 56, 57
restoration requirements, 92
roadless construction, 185, 188- 189; see also
Off-road travel
seismic trail networks, 5, 7, 10, 44, 48, 81-88,
96, 153
coastal zones, 82, 157
historical perspectives, 81
social impacts, 137-139
isolation, 4, 5, 13, 20, 23, 24, 132, 135,
137-138
285
vegetation impacts, 64, 77-88, 89, 95, 96, 97
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR),
82, 86, 96, 139
flooding, vegetation impacts, 5, 78, 80, 81,
95
historical perspectives, 77-78, 80-81
waste disposal on, 42
S
Safe Drinking Water Act, 72, 240
Saline spills, 47, 48, 76-77, 228-231
Salinity, 27, 59-60, 231
groundwater, waste injection effects, 72
lakes, 73
Satellite remote sensing, 47, 184, 189, 219
Scenic areas, see Visual resources
Sea ice, 27, 30, 57, 59-60, 74, 105
Seals,4,31,103-106
subsistence hunting, 22
Seasonal factors, ix, 2, 7, 24
see also Climate; Migratory species; Ice
processes; Snowfall/cover;
Temperature factors; Wildlife
reproductive behavior
caribou
calving, 6, 98, 153
summer insect harassment, 6, 107, 111,
115, 116, 117
bowhead whales, 99-100, 156
climate warming, 56, 57, 58
insects, summer harassment, 6, 107, 111
lakes and ponds, 26, 73-74
marine environment, 27, 30, 75, 77
off-road closures, 85-86
oil spills, 217-218, 221-223
ice processes, 7, 9, 74, 130, 158, 218, 220-
222, 223, 227
permafrost, 64-69
polar beers, 105
rivers and streams, 4, 26
saline spills, 231
sea ice, 27, 57, 100
seismic exploration, 100
subsistence activities, 21, 22, 103
transportation, 19, 77, 80
tundra, 4, 7, 19, 76, 77-78, 80, 84, 85, 95,
217, 218
vegetation, 5, 27-28, 58, 77-78, 84-86
water chemistry, 73
Seawater, see Saline spills; Salinity
Seeps
environmental impacts, 73, 77, 119
historical perspectives, 32, 167-168
Seismic activity, see Earthquakes
Seismic exploration, 7, 42, 44, 46-47, 48
Aeromap analysis, 81-82, 85, 110, 190-206
(passim)
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR),
178- 179
trails, vegetation impacts, 82, 86, 96, 139
bowhead whales, 100, 102, 103, 135, 136,
144-145, 156
caribou, 108-109
fish, 127, 129
OCR for page 286
286
historical perspectives, 169, 173- 174, 177- 179
marine mammals, general, 13, 48, 99, 103,
104
muskoxen, 117
National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska, 178, 183
trails, 87, 157
projected resource development activities, 55,
182
regulatory measures, 7, 84, 127, 153, 156
research methods, 86-87, 150
snow cover, 82, 84-86, 97
trail networks, 5, 7, 10, 44, 48, 81-88, 96, 153
coastal zones, 82, 157
historical perspectives, 81
vegetation impacts, 76, 78, 81-88, 96
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR),
82, 86, 96, 139
whales, 5-6, 13, 100, 102, 103, 135, 136, 144-
145, 156
Shorebirds, 3, 4, 30, 120, 123
Ships, including and tankers, 40, 57-58
bowhead whales, 100, 102, 103
Exxon Valdez, 100, 134-135
noise, 58, 153
oil spills, 58, 100-101, 134, 203, 208, 235
polar bears and seals, 104
Snowfall/cover
caribou, snow cover, 108
climate warming, 57, 58
gravel-covered areas, rehabilitation, 90
oil spills, 217, 222
roads, 78, 82
seals, snow cover, 104
seismic exploration, 82, 84-86, 97
transportation, 19, 77, 80
vegetation, snow cover, 82, 84-86, 90, 97
Snow geese, 122
Social factors and impacts, 4-5, 8, 9, 13, 19-23,
132-149, 156-157
see also Alaska Natives; Education;
Employment; Human health;
Recreational resources;
Socioeconomic factors;
Transportation; Visual resources
adaptation effects, 8, 132, 147-148, 156, 158-
159
cash economy, transition to, 49, 132,
146, 147, 158-159
oil production levels, 147, 148
costs, financial, 133-134, 139-140
transportation/cost of living, 4-5, 20, 135
historic perspectives, 4, 19, 20-23, 132-136
population growth/composition, 19, 20
information dissemination, 49-50
infrastructure, general, 132, 133, 136-147,
156-157
isolation, 4, 5, 13, 20, 23, 24, 132
National Environmental Policy Act, 132, 134
off-road travel, 139
offshore activities, 134-135, 139-140, 148,
156, 158
oil spills, 96, 134-135, 158
population composition, 19, 20, 23
population growth, 19
research methods/recommendations, 9, 132-
133, 149
INDEX
transportation, social isolation, 4, 5, 13, 20,
23, 24, 132, 135
wildlife values, 98, 103, 106; see also
Subsistence
Socioeconomic factors, 1, 2, 8, 13, 136
see also Education; Employment; Taxation
Alaska Natives, 8, 9, 20, 23, 103, 135, 139,
141-143
see also Subsistence
adaptation effects, 8, 132, 147-148, 158-
159
cash economy, transition to, 49, 132,
146, 147, 158-159
oil production levels, 147, 148
income, 4, 20, 23
redistribution of wealth, 49
cost of living, 20, 135
environmental limitations, 4-5, 19-20
leasing, 49-50
research methods/recommendations, 9, 132-
133, 149
Spills, other than oil, 9, 13, 47-48, 95
see also Oil spill remediation; Oil spills
injection wells, 70, 71-72, 73, 228, 229
natural gas, 69, 73
petroleum products, not oil, 47, 76, 90, 96,
209
saline, 47, 48, 76-77, 228-231
tundra, 76
unrestored landscapes, 7-8, 90
vegetation, 64, 76-77, 90, 92, 95-96
Standards, see Legislation and regulation
Statehood Act (Alaska), 172
Statistical analyses
see also Projections
oil spills, 210, 214, 220
uncertainty, 10, 153-154, 182
whale tracking, 17
Storage facilities, 47
regulatory controls, 237, 238
oil spills, 208, 209, 212, 213, 216, 226, 238
saline spills, 228
Streams, see Rivers and streams
Subsidence, 38
permafrost thaws, 65, 70, 72
Subsistence, 1, 4-5, 13, 20-22, 132, 134, 139,
141, 142, 144-145
birds, 22
caribou, 20, 22, 106, 108, 135-136, 138, 144,
148
cash economy, transition to, 49, 132, 146,
147, 158-159
coastal areas, 20-22, 135-136, 148, 156
fishing, 22, 123, 129, 132, 134
food contamination, 1, 13, 151
historical perspectives, 20, 21-22, 135
ice factors, 103
inland areas, 21, 22
marine mammals, other than whales, 20, 22,
103
seasonal factors, 21, 22, 103
trapping, 20, 22
whaling, 17-18, 21, 22, 99, 135-136, 137,
144-145, 148, 156, 157
hunter safety, 100, 135, 136, 156
T
Tankers, see Ships, including tankers
Tanks, see Storage facilities
Taxation, 23, 49, 143, 144, 147, 148, 242
infrastructure, 147-148
natural gas, 147
state royalties, 133, 143, 144
Technological innovation, 152, 183-189
see also Research methods; Seismic
exploration
acoustics, whales, 17
Aeromap analysis, 44, 46, 190-196
Arctic Drilling Platform, 185
coal and natural gas production, 12
coal transport, 60
drilling, 185- 187
directional drilling, 68-69, 186
historical perspectives, ix, 46-47, 169, 174-
175
ice roads and pads, 96, 184- 185
oil spill prevention, 214, 215-216, 217, 225-
227
oil spill remediation, 216-220, 225-227
pipelines, 47, 54, 189
production, enhanced oil recovery, 47, 187-
188
projections of future oil/gas activities, 51, 54
remote sensing, 47, 184, 189, 219
restoration of disturbed areas, 93, 96
road construction, 81, 86, 96, 184- 185, 188-
189
Rolligons, 185
seismic exploration, 81, 86, 87, 183- 184
waste disposal, 188
Temperature factors, 2, 24, 7
see also Climate; Ice processes; Permafrost;
Seasonal factors
heated buildings, 65, 68
marine environment, 27
oil spills, 77, 218-219, 222, 223
rehabilitation of disturbed sites, 90
social/economic effects, 19
transportation, 19, 77, 80
vegetation, 28-29
snow cover, 82, 84-86, 90, 97
Terminal facilities, 40, 208, 238
see also Storage facilities
Terrestrial environment, 4, 5, 24-31, 24-25, 58
see also Coastal zones; Floodplains;
Permafrost; Tundra; Wildlife;
Wildlife habitat
Thermokarst, 3, 7, 25, 65
roads, 5, 68, 77-81 (passim), 95, 96-97
Threatened species, see Endangered and
threatened species
Tourism, see Recreational resources
Toxic Substances Control Act, 240
Trans-Alaskan Pipeline Authorization Act, 134
Trans-Alaska Pipeline, 3, 13, 38, 40,
caribou, 106, 111
costs, 134
Environmental impact statements (EISs), 13
historical perspectives, 32, 33, 40-42, 206
maps of, 3, 44
natural gas, 56
OCR for page 287
INDEX
oil spills, 6-7, 47-48, 76, 208-219, 225, 226,
228, 229
saline spills, 228, 229
social impacts, 132, 133, 134
technological innovations, 54
Transportation, 20, 40-42, 49
see also Air transport; Off-road travel;
Pipelines; Roads and gravel paths;
Ships, including tankers; Storage
facilities; Terminal facilities
climatic effects, 19, 77, 80
coal, 60
cost of, 4-5, 20, 135
noise, 49
social isolation, 4, 5, 13, 20, 23, 24, 132, 135
Trapping, 20, 22
Tundra, 3, 7, 26, 29-30, 56, 95
see also Permafrost
Aeromap analysis, 44, 46, 190-207 (passim)
birds, 30, 119, 120-121
climate warming, 5, 57, 58-60
gravel damage, 35, 188-189, 190-207
(passim)
insects, 29-30
summer Wildlife harassment, 6, 107, 111,
115, 116, 117
off-road travel, 5, 10, 13, 48, 157
Aeromap analysis, 197-206 (passim)
oil spills, 76, 77, 213-214, 217-220 (passim),
223-224
particulate pollutants, 41
peat, 65, 78, 192, 197, 200-207 (passim)
research recommendations, 84
roads, 5, 77-78, 82-84, 95, 157
rivers and streams, 26
saline spills, 230-231
seismic trail networks, 5, 7, 10, 44, 48, 81-88,
96, 153
coastal zones, 82, 157
historical perspectives, 81
seasonal factors, 4, 7, 19, 76, 77-78, 80, 84,
85,95,217,218
vegetation, 3, 4, 5, 28, 29, 64, 77-78, 82-84,
95, 96-97, 217-220 (passim), 224,
230-231
nonacidic tundra, 88, 96, 97
peat, 65, 78, 192, 197, 200-207 (passim)
rehabilitation, 90
Tundra swan, 120- 121
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), 74, 88,
96, 104-105, 188, 240, 241
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 54, 56, 62, 145,
168, 171, 172, 180, 242
V
Vegetation, 28-29, 64, 76-97, 236
see also Wildlife food and feeding; Wildlife
habitat
air pollutants, 8, 78, 79, 80, 88, 95, 96
climate warming, 5, 28, 58
287
areas of special importance, 76, 77, 96, 97
coastal, 28-29, 82, 89, 95
endangered species, 89-90, 96
flooding, roads, 5, 78, 80, 81, 95
floodplains, river corridors, 88-89
gravel pads, 64, 76, 77, 78, 95
rehabilitation and restoration, 90-95
herbivores, 4, 30, 31, 58, 88; see also
Caribou; Muskoxen
kelp, 4, 31, 130
lakes, 30
mosses, 65, 77, 78, 88, 95, 220
nonnative plant species, 77, 80, 95
off-road travel, 5, 77-78, 84, 86, 139
offshore activities, 77, 90, 91, 93, 95
oil spills, 64, 76-77, 90, 92, 95-967, 217-220
(passim), 224; see also "spills, other
than oil" below
peat, 65, 78, 192, 197, 200-207 (passim)
phytoplankton, 4, 30-31, 57, 130
pingo habitat, 25, 89, 96, 97
restoration of disturbed sites, 76, 78, 80, 84,
86-87, 90-95, 96, 97, 219
river corridors, 88-89
road construction and use, 64, 76
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR),
82, 86, 96, 139
flooding, 5, 78, 80, 81, 95
historical perspectives, 77-78, 80-81
saline spills, 48, 76-77, 230-231
seasonal factors, 5, 27-28, 58, 77-78, 84-86
seismic exploration, 76, 78, 81-88, 96
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR),
82, 86, 96, 139
snow cover, 82, 84-86, 90, 97, 64, 76-77, 217-
220 (passim), 224
spills, other than oil, 64, 76-77, 90, 92, 95-96;
see also "oil spills" above
temperature factors, 28-29
snow cover, 82, 84-86, 90, 97
tundra, 3, 4, 5, 28, 29, 64, 65, 77-78, 82-84,
90, 95, 96-97, 217-220 (passim), 224,
230-231
nonacidic tundra, 88, 96, 97
wildlife habitat, 25, 89, 96, 97, 123
herbivores, 4, 30, 31, 58, 88, 123; see also
Caribou; other specific species
Visual resources, 5, 8, 49, 137-141, 148, 157
air pollutants, 73
economic value, 141-143, 145
off-road vehicles 139
pipelines, elevated, 68
roads, elevated, 68
seismic exploration, 139
unrestored landscapes, 7-8, 49
W
Waste production and disposal, 41-42, 49
bowhead whales, 100
coastal zones, 74
drilling, 37-38, 40, 41-42, 70-71, 74, 78, 188
see also Injection wells
bowhead whales, 100
rehabilitation, 94
fish habitat, 73
gravel reserve pits, 28, 42, 76, 94, 188
injection, 41, 42, 47, 69, 70-73, 77, 131, 188,
240
permafrost, 71, 72, 188
regulatory measures, 41, 42, 70, 71, 72, 74,
91-92, 128, 188, 230-231, 237, 239,
240
restoration of sites, 93, 94
on roads, 42
technological innovation, 188
Water consumption, 48, 153
see also Water withdrawals
drilling, 40, 47
ice roads, 36, 48, 127, 153
Waterfowl, 3, 4, 31, 98, 122
Water injection, see Injection wells
Water quality, 73-74, 150
see also Aquatic ecosystems; Fish and
fisheries; Freshwater environments;
Marine environments and organisms;
Spills, other than oil
Clean Water Act, 73, 91-92, 150, 239, 240
drinking water, 42, 70, 72, 240
ice roads and pads, 73
legislation and regulation, 150, 237, 239-240
saline spills, 47, 48, 76-77, 228-231
salinity, 27, 59-60, 72, 73, 231
seeps,
environmental impacts, 73, 77, 119
historical perspectives, 32, 167-168
waste injection, 41, 42, 72-73
water treatment, 41
Water withdrawals, 9, 10, 69-70, 73, 153
coastal zones, 10, 48, 49
freshwater fish habitat, 10, 98, 126-127, 129,
130, 153
lakes and ponds, 10, 98, 126-127, 129, 130,
153
rivers, 10, 98
seawater, 48
wildlife habitat, 10, 98
Wave action, 4, 26
coastal zones, 4, 26
oil spills, 212, 215, 223, 226
Wells, see Drilling and well operations
Wetlands, 3, 4, 74
see also Lakes and ponds
coastal, 3, 4, 19, 91-92, 238, 239
regulatory controls, restoration, 91-92, 238,
239
waste injection, 72
Whales, 1,4,5-6, 17-18,31
see also Bowhead whales
beluga, 4, 57, 99, 105
commercial whaling, 17, 18, 20, 21-22, 99,
100
historical perspectives, 20, 21-22, 99
oil spills, 9, 10, 100-103, 105, 152
research recommendations, 10
seismic disturbance, 5-6, 10, 13, 100, 102,
103, 135, 136, 144-145, 156
subsistence whaling, 17-18, 21, 22, 99, 135-
136, 137, 144-145, 148, 156, 157
hunter safety, 100, 135, 136, 156
Wilderness Act, 140-141
OCR for page 288
288
Wilderness and wildlands, 1, 5, 13, 140-141,
148, 157
see also Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
Bureau of Land Management (BLM), 140,
141
defined, 140
economic benefits, 141 - 143, 145
infrastructure, general, 5, 140-141, 148
National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska, 141
off-road vehicles, 139
Wildlife, 1, 98-131, 150, 157-158
see also Birds; Endangered and threatened
species; Fish and fisheries; Hunting;
Insects; Marine mammals; Migratory
species; Predators; Terrestrial
environments; Wildlife food and
feeding; Wildlife habitat; Wildlife
population dynamics; Wildlife
reproductive behavior
arctic foxes, 20, 30, 89, 117, 119
economic value, 98, 140-141, 142; see also
Subsistence
endangered and threatened species,
birds, 120, 121-122
polar beers, 103
population dynamics, 98-99
herbivores, 4, 30, 31, 58, 88; see also
Caribou; Muskoxen
invertebrates, 98, 153; see also Benthic
invertebrates
muskoxen, 117
noise, 98
aircraft, 98
seismic exploration, 98
oil spills, 64, 76-77, 98
regulatory measures, 56, 103, 104, 121, 136,
154, 235, 236-237, 238, 240, 241
Alaska Department of Fish and Game
(ADF&G), 127, 235, 236-237
INDEX
Alaska Eskimo Whaling Commission, 136,
156
Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, 56
Endangered Species Act, 121, 154, 240
Fish and Wildlife Coordination Act, 241
Migratory Bird Treaty Act, 241
marine mammals, 103, 104, 136, 241
U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (FWS), 74,
88, 96, 104-105, 188, 240, 241
research recommendations, 98, 150
roads, animal behavior, 5, 77, 98
social value of, 98, 103, 106; see also
Subsistence
zooplankton, 4, 31, 57, 130, 131
Wildlife food and feeding, 6, 29, 31, 48, 98, 157
see also Herbivores; Predators; Wildlife
population dynamics
birds, 118-119, 122-123
bowhead whales, 99, 100, 102, 103
caribou, 106-108 (passim), 112-116 (passim)
grizzly beers, 118
polar beers, 103, 104, 105
seals, 104
Wildlife habitat, 64, 98- 131
see also Fish and fisheries; Migratory species;
Vegetation; Wildlife food and
feeding; Wildlife population
dynamics; Wildlife reproductive
behavior
arctic foxes, 117
birds, species of concern, 118-123
bowhead whales, 99-101
caribou, 106-117 (passim), 144-145
climate change, 5, 58
flooding, roadside, 78
floodplain flow patterns, 74
grizzly bears, 117-118
muskoxen, 117
oil spills, 64, 76-77, 98
pingos, 25, 89, 96, 97
river corridors, vegetative habitat, 88-89
seals and polar bears, 103, 104- 105
Wildlife population dynamics, 98-99, 157-158
see also Wildlife reproductive behavior
arctic foxes, 117
birds, 6, 118-119, 157-158
caribou, 6, 106-107, 110, 111, 114-115
fish, 98-99
grizzly bears, 117-118
muskoxen, 117
National Petroleum Reserve-Alaska, 99
polar bear and seals, 104-105
reindeer, 20
whales, 103, 104-105, 106
Wildlife reproductive behavior, 6, 98-99, 157
see also Wildlife population dynamics
arctic foxes, 117
birds, 119- 123 (passim), 157
bowhead whales, 99-100
caribou, 6, 98, 106-108 (passim), 110-117
(passim), 153, 158
fish, 123-126 (passim)
muskoxen, 117
polar beers, 105-106
raptors, 119
seals, 104, 105-106
Wind, 27
coastal zones, 4, 26
diadromous fish, 124, 128
oil spills, 212, 215, 223, 226
vegetation, 28
z
Zones of influence, 9, 42, 152-153, 158
Zooplankton, 4, 31, 130, 131
clmate warming, 57
Representative terms from entire chapter:
aeromap analysis
