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MANAGING
CARBON MONOXIDE
POLLUTION
1 1~1 IVI ~ I =~J'~> BAJA 1 ~~
AND TOPOGRAPHICAL
PROBLEM AREAS
Committee on Carbon Monoxide Episodes in
Meteorological and Topographical Problem Areas
Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology
Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate
Division on Earth and Life Studies
Transportation Research Board
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL
OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
Washington, D.C.
www.nap.edu
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, NW
Washington, D.C. 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing
Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the
National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of
Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their
special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This project was supported by Contract No. X-82880601-0 between the National
Academy of Sciences and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Any opinions,
findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the
authoress and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or agencies that
provided support for this project.
International Standard Book Number 0-309-08923-9 (Book)
International Standard Book Number 0-309-50884-3 (PDF)
Additional copies of this report are available from:
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500 Fifth Street, NW
Box 285
Washington, DC 20055
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http://www.nap.edu
Copyright 2003 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
Cover: photograph by Nick Wheeler/CORBIS
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
Advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering, and Medicine
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of
distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the
furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the
authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate
that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr.
Bruce M. Alberts is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the
National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is
autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the
National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The
National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting
national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements
of engineers. Dr. Wm. A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to
secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of
policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the
responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be
an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of
medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute
of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in
1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's
purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in
accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the
principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National
Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the
scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both
Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Bruce M. Alberts and Dr. Wm. A. Wulf are
chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.
www.natlonal-academles.org
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.
6
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COMMITTEE ON CARBON MONOXIDE EPISODES
IN METEOROLOGICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL PROBLEM AREAS
Members
ARMISTEAD G. RUSSELL (Chair), Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta
ROGER ATKINSON, University of California, Riverside
SUE ANN BOWLING, University of Fairbanks (Retired), Fairbanks, AK
STEVEN D. COLOME, University of California, Los Angeles
NATHUA DUAN, University of California, Los Angeles
GERALD GALLAGHER, J Gallagher and Associates, Inc., Englewood, CO
RANDALL L. GUENSEER, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta
SUSAN L. HANDY, University of California, Davis
SIMONE HOCHGREB, University of Cambridge, England
SANDRA N. MOHR, Consultant, Gillette, New Jersey
ROGER A. PIEEKE SR., Colorado State University, Fort Collins
KARL J. SPRINGER, Southwest Research Institute (Retired), San Antonio, TX
ROGER WAYSON, University of Central Florida, Orlando
Project Stay
K. JOHN HOLMES, Senior Staff Officer
RAYMOND WASSEL, Senior Program Director
NANCY HUMPHREY, Senior Staff Officer
CHAD TOLMAN, Staff Officer
LAURIE GELLER, Senior Staff Officer
AMANDA STAUDT, Staff Officer
KELLY CLARK, Editor
MIRSADA KARALIC-LONCAREVIC, Research Assistant
RAMYA CHARI, Research Assistant
EMILY BRADY, Senior Project Assistant
Sponsor
U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY
v
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BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAE STUDIES AND TOXICOEOGY
Members
GORDON ORIANS (Chair), University of Washington, Seattle
JOHN DOULL (Vice Chair9, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City
DAVID AEEEN, University of Texas, Austin
THOMAS BURKE, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
JUDITH C. CHOW, Desert Research Institute, Reno, NV
CHRISTOPHER B. FIEED, Carnegie Institute of Washington, Stanford, CA
WILLIAM H. GLAZE, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton
SHERR! W. GOODMAN, Center for Naval Analyses, Alexandria, VA
DANIEE S. GREENBAUM, Health Effects Institute, Cambridge, MA
ROGENE HENDERSON, Lovelace Respiratory Research Institute, Albuquerque,
NM
CAROL HENRY, American Chemistry Council, Arlington, VA
ROBERT HUGGETT, Michigan State University, East Lansing
BARRY L. JOHNSON Emory University, Atlanta, GA
JAMES H. JOHNSON, Howard University, Washington, DC
JAMES A. MACMAHON, Utah State University, Logan
PATRICK V. O'BRIEN, Chevron Research and Technology, Richmond, CA
DOROTHY E. PATTON, International Life Sciences Institute, Washington, DC
ANN POWERS, Pace University School of Law, White Plains, NY
LOUISE M. RYAN, Harvard University, Boston, MA
JONATHAN M. SAMET, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
KIRK SMITH, University of California, Berkeley
LISA SPEER, Natural Resources Defense Council, New York, NY
G. DAVID TILMAN, University of Minnesota, St. Paul
CHRIS G. WHIPPLE, Environ Incorporated, Emeryville, CA
LAUREN A. ZEISE, California Environmental Protection Agency, Oakland, CA
Senior Stay
JAMES J. REISA, Director
DAVID J. POLICANSKY, Associate Director
RAYMOND A. WASSEE, Senior Program Director for Environmental Sciences
and Engineering
KULBIR BAKSHI, Program Director for the Committee on Toxicology
ROBERTA M. WEDGE, Program Director for Risk Analysis
K. JOHN HOLMES, Senior Staff Officer
SUSAN N.J. MARTEE, Senior Staff Officer
SUZANNE VAN DRUNICK, Senior Staff Officer
EIEEEN N. ABT, Senior Staff Officer
ELLEN K. MANTUS, Senior Staff Officer
RUTH E. CROSSGROVE, Managing Editor
Vl
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TRANSPORTATION RESEARCH BOARD EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE
Members
GENEVIEVE GIULIANO (Chair), University of Southern California, Los Angeles
MICHAEL S. TOWNES ~ Vice Chair), Hampton Roads Transit, Virginia
ROBERT E. SKINNER, JR. (Executive Director), National Research Council,
Washington, DC
MICHAEL W BEHRENS, Texas Department of Transportation, Austin
JOSEPH H. BOARDMAN, New York State Department of Transportation, Albany
SARAH C. CAMPBELL, TransManagement Inc., Washington DC
E. DEAN CARLSON, Independent Consultant, Topeka, KS
JOANNE CASEY, Intermodal Association of North America, Greenbelt, MD
JAMES C. CODELL III, Kentucky Transportation Cabinet, Frankfort
JOHN L. CRAIG, Nebraska Department of Roads, Lincoln
BERNARD S. GROSECLOSE JR., South Carolina State Ports Authority,
Charleston
SUSAN HANSON, Clark University, Worcester, MA
LESTER A. HOEL, University of Virginia, Charlottesville
HENRY L. HUNGERBEELER, Missouri Department of Transportation, Jefferson
City
ADIB K. KANAFANI, University of California, Berkeley
RONALD F. KIRBY, Metropolitan Washington Council of Governments,
Washington DC
HERBERT S. LEVINSON, Herbert S. Levinson Transportation Cons., New Haven,
CT
MICHAEL D. MEYER, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta
JEFF P. MORALES, California Nepal lenient of Transportation, Sacramento
KAM K. MOVASSAGHI, Louisiana Deltas lenient of Transportation &
Development, Baton Rouge
CAROL A. MURRAY, New Hampshire Department of Transportation, Concord
DAVID Z. PLAVIN, Airports Council International of North America, Washington
DC
JOHN H. REBENSDORF, Union Pacific Railroad Company, Omaha
CATHERINE L. ROSS, Consultant, Atlanta, GA
JOHN M. SAMUELS, Norfolk Southern Corporation, Norfolk, VA
PAUL P. SKOUTELAS, Port Authority of Allegheny County, Pittsburgh, PA
MICHAEL W. WICKHAM, Roadway Express, Inc., Akron, OH
. .
V11
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BOARD ON ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES AND CLIMATE
Members
ERIC J. BARRON (Chair), Pennsylvania State University, University Park
RAYMOND J. BAN, The Weather Channel, Inc., Atlanta, GA
ROBERT C. BEARDSLEY, Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Woods Hole,
MA
ROSINA M. BIERBAUM, The University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
HOWARD B. BLUESTEIN, University of Oklahoma, Norman
RAFAEL L. BRAS, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
STEVEN F. CLIFFORD, University of Colorado, Boulder
CASSANDRA G. FESEN, Dan Mouth College, Hanover, NH
GEORGE L. FREDERICK, Vaisala Meteorological Systems, Inc., Boulder, CO
JUDITH L. LEAN, Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, DC
MARGARET A. LEMONE, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder,
CO
MARIO J. MOLINA, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
MICHAEL J. PRATHER, University of California, Irvine
WILLIAM J. RANDEL, National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, CO
RICHARD D. ROSEN, Atmospheric & Environmental Research, Inc., Lexington,
MA
THOMAS F. TASCIONE, Sterling Software, Inc., Bellevue, NE
JOHN C. WYNGAARD, Pennsylvania State University, University Park
. . .
vial
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OTHER REPORTS OF THE
BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY
Cumulative Environmental Effects of Alaska North Slope Oil and Gas
Development (2003)
Estimating the Public Health Benefits of Proposed Air Pollution Regulations
(2002)
Biosolids Applied to Land: Advancing Standards and Practices (2002)
Ecological Dynamics on Yellowstone's Northern Range (2002)
The Airliner Cabin Environment and Health of Passengers and Crew (2002)
Arsenic in Drinking Water: 2001 Update (2001)
Evaluating Vehicle Emissions Inspection and Maintenance Programs (2001)
Compensating for Wetland Losses Under the Clean Water Act (2001)
A Risk-Management Strategy for PCB-Contaminated Sediments (2001)
Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals (3 volumes,
2000-2003)
Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury (2000)
Strengthening Science at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2000)
Scientific Frontiers in Developmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment (2000)
Ecological Indicators for the Nation (2000)
Modeling Mobile-Source Emissions (2000)
Waste Incineration and Public Health (1999)
Hormonally Active Agents in the Environment ~ 1999)
Research Priorities for Airborne Particulate Matter (4 volumes, 1998-2003)
Ozone-Forming Potential of Reformulated Gasoline (1999)
Arsenic in Drinking Water (1999)
The National Research Council's Committee on Toxicology: The First 50 Years
(1997)
Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet (1996)
Upstream: Salmon and Society in the Pacific Northwest (1996)
Science and the Endangered Species Act (1995)
Wetlands: Characteristics and Boundaries (1995)
Biologic Markers (5 volumes, 1989-1995)
Review of EPA's Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (3
volumes, 1994-1995)
Science and Judgment in Risk Assessment (1994)
Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children (1993)
Dolphins and the Tuna Industry (1992)
Science and the National Parks (1992)
Human Exposure Assessment for Airborne Pollutants (1991)
Rethinking the Ozone Problem in Urban and Regional Air Pollution (1991)
Decline ofthe Sea Turtles (1990)
Copies of these reports may be orderedfrom the National Academy Press
6800j 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313
www.nap.edu
ix
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Acknowledgment
of Review Participants
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their
diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures
approved by the National Research CounciT's (NRC's) Report Review
Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid
and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published
report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional
standards for objectivity, evidence, andresponsiveness to the study charge.
The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect
the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following
individuals for their review of this report:
Richard Baker, Ford Motor Company
Lenora Bohren, Colorado State University
Russell Dickerson, University of Maryland
Robert Dulia, Sierra Research, Inc.
Peter Flachsbart, University of Hawaii at Manoa
Bernard D. Goldstein, University of Pittsburgh
R. Michael Hardesty, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Roland Hwang, Natural Resources Defense Council
lane Milford, University of Colorado at Boulder
William Neff, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Robert F. Klausmeier, de la Torre Klausmeier Consulting, Inc.
Xl
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xii Acknowledgment of Review Participants
Andrew Sessler, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory
Michael Walsh, Consultant
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive
comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions
or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report before its
release. The review of this report was overseen by William Chameides,
Georgia Institute of Technology, and Robert Sawyer, University of Califor-
nia, Berkeley. Appointed by the NBC, they were responsible for making
certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in
accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were
carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content ofthisreportrests
entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.
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Preface
Carbon monoxide (CO) is a toxic air pollutant emitted largely from motor
vehicles. It is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas that can produce serious
adverse health effects. Breathing CO at high concentrations leads to
carboxyhemogIobin poisoning (reduced oxygen transport by hemoglobins,
which can lead to impaired reaction timing, headaches, lightheadedness,
nausea, coma, and, at high enough concentrations and long enough expo-
sure, death. At lower concentrations that can occur in the ambient environ-
ment, the effects of CO exposure include increased risk of chest pain and
hospitalization for persons with coronary artery disease. Because of the
adverse health effects associated with this pollutant, the U.S. Environmen-
tal Protection Agency (EPA), as directed by the Clean Air Act, established
the health-based National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) for CO
in 1971.
Reducing CO pollution has been one of the greatest success stories in
emissions control. Over the past three decades improved motor-vehicle
emissions controls have greatly reduced ambient CO concentrations. Most
areas that were originally designated as nonattainment areas have come into
compliance with the NAAQS for CO. However, certain locations continue
to occasionally experience high concentrations of CO. These locations
tend to have topographical and meteorological characteristics that exacer-
bate pollution. Compliance with the health-based NAAQS for CO has
proved difficult under those circumstances. In response to the challenges
posed for certain areas by having to come into compliance with the
xiii
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xiv Preface
NAAQS for CO, Congress requested that the National Research Council
investigate the characteristics of CO in areas with meteorological and topo-
graphical handicaps. In an interim report released in May of 2002, the
committee addressed this issue for Fairbanks, Alaska.
Many people assisted the committee by providing information related
to issues addressed in this report. We gratefully acknowledge Steven Albu,
California Air Resources Board; Joseph Cassmassi, South Coast Air Qual-
ity Management District; B art Croes, California Air Resources Board; Greg
Dana, Alliance of Automobile Manufacturers; Laurence Elmore, EPA;
Robert Gibbons, University of Illinois at Chicago; Douglas Lawson, Na-
tional Renewable Energy Laboratory; William Neff, National Oceanic and
Atmospheric Administration; Dennis Ransel, Clark County, Nevada; Pat-
rick Reddy, Colorado Department of Public Health and the Environment;
Beate Ritz, University of California, Los Angeles; Shannon Therriault,
Missoula City/County Health Department.
I am also grateful for the assistance of the National Research Council
staff in the preparation of this report. K. John Holmes greatly assisted the
committee in his role as project director. The committee also acknowI-
edges Raymond A. Wassel, senior program director for environmental
sciences and engineering in the Board on Environmental Studies and Toxi-
cology (BEST). We thank the other staffmembers who contributed to this
report, including Warren Muir, executive director of the Division on Earth
and Life Studies; lames J. Reisa, director of BEST; Nancy Humphrey,
senior staff officer with the Transportation Research Board; Laurie Geller,
senior staff officer with the Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate
(BASC); Amanda Staudt, staff officer with BASC; Chad Tolman, staff
officer with BEST (retired); Kelly Clark, assistant editor with BEST;
Mirsada Karalic-Loncarevic, research assistant with BEST; Ramya Chari,
research assistant with BEST; and Emily Brady, senior project assistant
with BEST.
Finally, I would like to thank all the members ofthe committee for their
expertise and dedicated effort throughout the study.
A~mistead Russell, Ph.D.
Chair, Committee on Carbon
Monoxide Episodes in
Meteorological and
Topographical Problem Areas
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Contents
Summary
Ambient Carbon Monoxide Pollution in the United States 16
Introduction, 16
Study Background and Charge, ~ 7
Summary of Interim Report, 21
The Committee's Approach To Its Charge, 22
Report Contents, 23
National Regulatory Setting for Ambient CO, 23
Areas With Recent Exceedances of the CO Standard, 27
Sources of CO Emissions, 31
Health Effects of CO, 39
Relationship of CO to Other Air Pollutants, 51
Equity Considerations in the Spatial Distribution of
Ambient CO, 65
Contributions of Topography, Meteorology, and
Human Activity to Carbon Monoxide Concentrations 72
Introduction, 72
Meteorology and Topography, 74
Temporal Patterns of CO Concentrations, 82
Vulnerability to Future Exceedances, SS
Illustrative Examples, 94
xv
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xvi Contents
3 Management of Carbon Monoxide Air Quality.
Emissions Control Programs, 100
Monitoring, Models, and Inventories, 129
4 The Future of Carbon Monoxide Air Quality Management
Exposures of Concern in the Future, 150
Future CO Management Issues, l S1
Integrating CO Control Into the Overall Air Quality
Management System, 156
..100
.149
References 160
Glossary 1 78
Appendix A. Biographical Information on the Committee on
Carbon Monoxide Episodes in Meteorological and
Topographical Problem Areas l 89
Appendix B. Abbreviations and Names Used for Classifying
Organic Compounds 193
Appendix C. A Simple Box Model with Recirculation
194
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Managing Carbon Monoxide Pollution in
Meteorological and Topographical
Problem Areas
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