Index
A
Acceptable exposure levels, establishing for natural and managed ecosystems, 21, 312
Acetamide, 365
Acetonitrile, 365
Acetophenone, 365
2-Acetylaminofluorene, 365
Acid deposition, 111
Acid deposition modeling (ADOM), 64, 110
Acid rain (SO2 and NOx), reducing emissions of species that cause, 33
Acid rain program, 110, 204, 214
NOx provisions, 187
SO2 emissions trading, 196–202
targets for, 64
Acid Rain Title of CAA Amendments, 97
goals set by, 64–65
Acrolein, 365
Acrylamide, 365
Acrylic acid, 365
Acrylonitrile, 365
ADOM. See Acid deposition modeling
Aerometric Information Retrieval System (in EPA) (AIRS), 237
Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, 308
Agricultural Research Service (in the USDA) (ARS), 259
Agriculture, ecosystem effects from exposure to air pollution in, 258–259
Air pollutants
designing, testing, and implementing technologies and systems for efficiently preventing or reducing, 36
impacts of, 28–29
listing potentially dangerous but unregulated for regulatory attention, 21, 306–309
Air Pollution Control Act, 29
Air pollution science, 24–28
enhancing monitoring, 17, 286–287
factors influencing the pollutant mix in the atmosphere and the resultant impacts of pollution, 25
national average emission categories for CO, SO2, NOx, VOCs, PM10, and PM2.5, 27
Air quality management (AQM), 23
current system for, 11–13
designing and implementing control strategies through the SIP process, 88–132
estimating the costs and benefits of, 37–39
forecasting in, 239–240
future of improving, 39–41
growth areas and emission trends, 9
implementing emission controls on mobile sources, 133–173
implementing emission controls on stationary sources, 174–216
iterative nature of, 4
long-term objectives for, 10
measuring the progress and assessing the benefits of, 216–267
moving forward, 21–22
progress in, 5
setting goals and standards, 45–87
system adapting to climate change, 277–278
transforming the nation’s system to meet the challenges of the coming decades, 268–315
in the United States, 29–35
Air quality management (AQM) recommendations
for advances in environmental instrumentation, 315
for developing an integrated program for criteria pollutants and hazardous air pollutants, 20–21, 304–311
for enhancing protection of ecosystems and other aspects of public welfare, 21, 311–313
for expanding national and multistate performance-oriented control strategies to support local, state, and tribal efforts, 18–19, 291–296
for implementation, 371–374
for meeting the challenges ahead, 6–7, 16–21
for needed research and development, 369–371
for strengthening scientific and technical capacity to assess risk and track progress, 17–18, 284–290
for transforming the SIP process, 19–20, 296–304
Air quality management plan (AQMP), 6, 19–20, 297–307, 310
ensuring a successful transition to, 304
Air quality measurement techniques, 235–236
Air-quality modeling, 103–114
delays in incorporating new scientific insights from models into policy design, 112–113
dynamic partnership between technical and regulatory communities, 112
emerging multipollutant models, 114
emissions-based air quality models, 105–112
empirical rollback model, 104
lessons learned about air quality models, 112–114
model uncertainties, 113
need for regulators to apply model results appropriately, 112
need to subject models to comprehensive performance evaluations, 112
over-reliance on models for O3 SIPs, 113–114
receptor models, 104–105
Air quality monitoring
designing and implementing technologies and methods for documenting pollutant exposures, 36
siting of stations, 233–235
trend analysis techniques, 236–237
Air quality standards, overview of, 46–47
Air Resources Board, 157
AIRMoN. See Atmospheric Integrated Research Monitoring Network
AIRS. See Aerometric Information Retrieval System (EPA)
ALAPCU. See Association of Local Air Pollution Control Officials
Allocation of emission allowances, fairness in, 208
Allowable concentration increments (micrograms per cubic meter), for prevention of significant deterioration (PSD), 182
Allyl chloride, 365
Ambient air quality, methods for monitoring in ecosystems, 371
Ambient concentrations used to confirm emission trends, 217–220
emission inventories and changes in average pollutant concentrations derived from air quality monitoring networks, 220
EPA’s trends in estimated nationwide pollutant emissions and average measured concentrations, 218
AmeriFlux, 259
4-Aminobiphenyl, 365
Aniline, 365
o-Anisidine, 365
Anthropogenic sources, contributing emissions resulting in the deposition of acidic compounds, 61
Antimony compounds, 367
Applicability issues with NSR and PSD, 181–185
complexity and inefficiency, 182–183
definition of significant, nonroutine modification, 185
grandfathering of facilities, 184
NOx emissions from coal-fired boilers, by vintage, 184
older, dirtier facilities remaining in operation, 183–184
AQIRP. See Auto/Oil Air Quality Improvement Research Program
AQM. See Air quality management
AQM system, recommendations for an enhanced, 283–313
AQMP. See Air quality management plan
ARCO. See Atlantic Richfield Company
Area-source regulations, 212–214
present status of, 214
ARS. See Agricultural Research Service (USDA)
Arsenic compounds (inorganic), 55, 367
Assessing ecosystem benefits from improved air quality, 252–261
Assessing health benefits from improved air quality, 241–252
assessments based on data from short-term air pollution events, 243
assessments using risk functions and exposure estimates, 243–249
monitoring actual human exposure, 249–252
Assessing the economic benefits of air quality improvements, 261–265
economic assessments, 263–265
pollution abatement cost and expenditures (PACE) survey, 265
Assessments based on tracking public health status and criteria pollutant risk over time, 244–246
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 245
National Children’s Study (NCS), 245
Pew Environmental Health Commission, 244–245
Assessments using risk functions and exposure estimates, 243–249
efforts to track the effects of HAP emission reductions, 246–248
other HAP assessments, 248–249
tracking progress in reducing HAPs-related health effects for the future, 249
Association of Local Air Pollution Control Officials (ALAPCU), 100, 286
Atlantic Richfield Company (ARCO), 157
Atmospheric composition monitoring networks, 220–228
enhanced PM2.5 monitoring networks, 227
gaseous pollutant monitoring program, 226
hazardous air pollutants, 227–228
interagency monitoring of protected visual environments, 226
locations of initial PM25 supersites, 228
major U.S. monitoring networks, 222–223
monitoring visibility, 226
national, state, and local air monitoring stations, 220–224
photochemical assessment monitoring stations (PAMS), 224–226
surface O3 monitoring sites and ozonesonde sites in North America, 224
Atmospheric Integrated Research Monitoring Network (AIRMoN), 232, 257
Attainment-demonstration SIPs, 92
air-quality modeling, 103–114
emission-control strategy development in an attainment demonstration SIP, 115–120
emission inventories, 97–103
main components of, 96
overemphasis on, 128–130
using the weight-of-evidence approach in the attainment demonstration, 114–115
Auto/Oil Air Quality Improvement Research Program (AQIRP), 158
B
BACT. See Best available control technology
Banking emission allowances
for the future, 207
opportunity for, 201–202
BART. See Best available retrofit technology
Baselines of ecosystem condition, establishing, 372
Behavioral and societal strategies to reduce mobile-source emissions, 162–167
controls on transportation infrastructure planning and investment, 164
linking highway capacity expansion to air quality through the National Environment Policy act, 164–167
regulation of motorists’ vehicle use, 162–163
Benzene, 55, 57, 145, 158, 307, 365
trends in annual concentrations in metropolitan areas, 230
Benzidine, 365
Benzotrichloride, 365
Benzyl chloride, 365
Best available control technology (BACT), 180–183
Best available retrofit technology (BART), 123
Bioaccumulative toxins, 308
Biphenyl, 365
Bis(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate, 365
1,1-Bis(4-chlorophenyl) ethane (DDE), 365
Bis(chloromethyl) ether, 365
Blood lead concentrations in the U.S. population, 156
Bromoform, 365
Bureaucratic process, 128
1,3-Butadiene, 365
C
CAA. See Clean Air Act (1963)
Cadmium compounds, 367
CAFE. See Corporate Average Fuel Economy standards
Calcium cyanamide, 365
California, unique role in controlling mobile emissions, 137
California Air Resources Board (CARB), 145, 274
California and federal reformulated gasoline programs, 158–159
California Clean Air Act, 157
California Comparative Risk Project (CCRP), 249
Cap-and-trade provisions
acid rain SO2 emissions trading program, 196–202
early trading programs implemented in the U.S., 197–198
for major stationary sources, 196–210
in proposed multipollutant legislation, 204
savings from the SO2 emissions trading program, 200
SO2 emissions from electric utilities in the United States, 199
Caprolactam, 55
Captan, 365
CARB. See California Air Resources Board
Carbaryl, 365
Carbon dioxide (CO2), 73–74, 126, 194, 205, 208
Carbon disulfide, 365
Carbon monoxide (CO), 4, 11, 14, 27, 37, 48, 92–93, 130, 139, 143–144, 151, 158, 172, 194, 217, 268
emissions-based models for, 105
national average emission categories for, 27
Carbon tetrachloride, 365
Carbonyl sulfide, 365
Cardiopulmonary disease. See Pope/ American Cancer Society Study
CASAC. See Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee (of EPA)
CASTNet. See Clean Air Status and Trends Network
Catechol, 365
CCRP. See California Comparative Risk Project
CDC. See Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CEM. See Continuous emissions monitoring
CENRAP. See Central States Regional Air Partnership
Center for Evaluation of Reproductive Health Risks, 308
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 245, 288
assessment of pollutant risk over time from, 245
Central States Regional Air Partnership (CENRAP), 123
Certainty of penalties, 201
Certification standards on new vehicles and motors, controlling emissions through, 136–148
CFCs. See Chlorofluorocarbons
CFR. See Code of Federal Regulations
CH4. See Methane
Challenges ahead for AQM, 5, 13–16
climate change, 16
environmental justice, 15
health effects at low pollutant concentrations, 15
multistate, cross-border, and intercontinental transport, 15–16
new standards, 15
protecting ecosystem health, 15
recommendations for meeting, 6–7, 16–21
toxic air pollutants, 15
transforming the nation’s AQM system to meet, 268–315
trends in emissions versus ambient concentrations of various primary pollutants, 14
Chemical transport model (CTM), 106, 110, 239
modern multipollutant, multiscale, 110–111
Chloramben, 365
Chlordane, 365
Chlorine, 365
Chloroacetic acid, 365
2-Chloroacetophenone, 365
Chlorobenzene, 365
Chlorobenzilate, 365
Chlorofluorocarbons (compounds made up of chlorine, fluorine, and carbon) (CFCs), 198
phasing out, 198
Chloroform, 365
Chloromethyl methyl ether, 365
Chloroprene, 365
Chromium compounds, 367
Civil Rights Act of 1964, 65
Classification of nonattainment areas for O3 and CO, as mandated in the CAA Amendments of 1990, 92
Clean Air Act of 1963 (CAA), 3, 5, 7–15, 19, 21, 29, 32–33, 131, 133, 174, 216, 268, 316, 363–364
Clean Air Act of 1963 (CAA) requirements for SIPs, 94–96
for all states, 94
for nonattainment areas, 94–95
for O3 nonattainment areas, 95–96
Clean Air Scientific Advisory Committee (of EPA) (CASAC), 50–51
Clean Air Status and Trends Network (CASTNet), 231–232, 257
Climate change, 16
Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory (CMDL), 241
Clinton administration, 185
CLTRAP. See Convention on the Long-Range Transport of Transboundary Air Pollution
CMDL. See Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory
CO. See Carbon monoxide
CO2. See Carbon dioxide
Cobalt compounds, 367
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), 129
Coke oven emissions, 367
Columbia River Inter-Tribal Fish Commission, 123
Committee on Air Quality Management in the U.S., 9
Complexity, of the NSR and PSD requirements, 182–183
Compliance assurance, and CEM, 210
Compliance assurance for traditional control programs, 190–196
cap and trade in proposed multipollutant legislation, 204
compliance monitoring of stationary sources, 192–195
evaluation of cap-and-trade approaches to air regulations, 205–210
government on-site inspections of stationary sources, 192
NOx emissions trading programs, 202–204
off-normal emissions, 195–196
Title V operating permit program, 190–191
Compliance monitoring of stationary sources, 192–195
continuous emissions monitoring, 194–195
economic and emissions performance of the SO2 trading program, 199–202
emissions estimation models, 192–193
opportunity for banking emission allowances, 201–202
parametric emissions monitoring, 193–194
periodic source testing, 193
remote sensing, 195
Comprehensive suite of indicators, measuring consistently, 372
Concentration-response estimation on cardiopulmonary disease mortality, 77
Conformity requirement, 170–172
regulations for, 165–167
retaining and improving, 301–303
Consolidated metropolitan statistical area (CMSA), 90
Consumer Products Safety Commission (CPSC), 85
Continuous emissions monitoring (CEM), 97, 192, 194–195, 201, 215, 217, 265
availability of systems for, 97, 201
compliance assurance and, 210
Contribution of nonroad emissions to mobile-source total and to manmade total, 143
Contribution to the sulfate column burden at 00UT (vertical integral of the concentration), 276
Control technique guidelines (CTG), 186, 213
Controls
on atmospheric sources of nitrogen, evaluating, 374
designing and implementing, 12–13, 21, 312–313
of in-use motor-vehicle emissions, 148–162
of mobile-source air toxic emissions, 145
on motorists’ behaviors, 170
strategies for designing and implementing through the SIP process, 88–132
on transportation infrastructure planning and investment, 164
Controls on acid rain precursors before the CAA Amendments of 1990, 61–64
acid rain goals set by the CAA Amendments of 1990, 64–65
anthropogenic sources and natural sources contributing emissions resulting in the deposition of acidic compounds, 61
controls on acid rain precursors before the CAA Amendments of 1990, 61–64
role of NAPAP in shaping the acid rain provisions of the CAA Amendments of 1990, 64
trends in nationwide SO2 and NO2 emissions, 63
Controls on emissions through certification standards on new vehicles and motors, 136–148
California’s unique role in controlling mobile emissions, 137
control of mobile-source air toxic emissions, 145
emission standards for heavy-duty vehicles, 142–143
emission standards for light-duty vehicles and light-duty trucks, 137–142
emission standards for nonroad engines, 143–145
evolution of California and federal tailpipe standards on passenger car exhaust emissions, 138–139
implementation of emission standards for new mobile sources, 145–148
technology innovation and emission controls, 140
Convention on the Long-Range Transport of Transboundary Air Pollution (CLTRAP), 277
Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE) standards, 136
Cost of fuel, 163
Costs and benefits of the federally mandated AQM system, 37–39
growth areas and emission trends, 38
CPSC. See Consumer Products Safety Commission
Cresols/cresylic acid
m-Cresol, 365
o-Cresol, 365
p-Cresol, 365
Criteria pollutants, 47–48, 304
lack of thresholds for health effects of, 77–78
mitigating potentially harmful human and ecosystem exposure to the six, 32
“Critical loads,” and Europe’s approach to setting acid rain goals, 81–82
Critical species, measuring in a regular monitoring mode, 233
Cross-border transport, 15–16
Cross-media pollution, beyond one atmosphere to one environment, 280
CTG. See Control technique guidelines
CTM. See Chemical transport model
Cumene, 365
Current standard-setting procedure for HAPs, 55–58
Current system for AQM, 11–13
assessing status and measuring progress, 13
designing and implementing controls, 12–13
standard-setting, 12
Cyanide compounds, 367
D
DALYs. See Disability-adjusted life-years
Data availability, 237–240
air quality forecasting, 239–240
case study on pollutant trend analysis in O3, 238
Demographic and economic trends, quantifying the expected, with and without air pollution control strategies, 35
Deposition monitoring networks, 228–232
clean air status and trends network, 231–232
National Atmospheric Deposition Program and Mercury Deposition Network (NADP/MDN), 230–231
National Atmospheric Deposition Program and National Trends Network (NADP/NTN), 228–230
rated Research Monitoring Network (AIRMoN), 232
trends in wet sulfate deposition in the United States, 231
DIAL. See Differential absorption LIDAR
Diatomic oxygen (O2), 194
Diazomethane, 366
Dibenzofurans, 366
1,2-Dibromo-3-chloropropane, 366
Dibutylphthalate, 366
1,4-Dichlorobenzene(p), 366
3,3'-Dichlorobenzidine, 366
Dichloroethyl ether, 366
2,4-Dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (including salts and esters) (2,4-D), 366
1,3-Dichloropropene, 366
Dichlorvos, 366
Diesel engines, reducing emissions from older and nonroad, 169
Diesel fuels, regulating the content of, 153–162
Diethanolamine, 366
Diethyl sulfate, 366
Differential absorption LIDAR (DIAL), 315
3,3'-Dimethoxy benzidine, 366
p-Dimethyl amino azobenzene, 366
N,N-Dimethyl aniline, 366
3,3'-Dimethyl benzidine, 366
Dimethyl carbamoyl chloride, 366
N,N-Dimethyl formamide, 366
1,1-Dimethyl hydrazine, 366
Dimethyl phthalate, 366
Dimethyl sulfate, 366
4,6-Dinitro-o-cresol (including salts), 366
2,4-Dinitrophenol, 366
2,4-Dinitrotoluene, 366
1,4-Dioxane, 366
1,2-Diphenylhydrazine, 366
Dirtier facilities remaining in operation, and the application of NSR and PSD, 183–184
Disability-adjusted life-years (DALYs), 264
DOE. See U.S. Department of Energy (DOE)
Draft Report on the Environment, 17, 267, 289
E
ECO. See Employee commute options
Ecological Indicators for the Nation, 261
Economic and emissions performance of the SO2 trading program, 199–202
availability of CEM systems, 201
certainty of penalties, 201
simplicity, 201
substantial emission reductions, 201
transparency, 201
Economic assessments, 263–265
Ecosystem benefits from improved air quality, 252–261
action needed for enhanced ecosystem monitoring, research, and risk assessment, 260–261
integrated ecosystem studies, 259–260
tracking and characterizing ecosystem effects from exposure to air pollution, 254–259
tracking ecosystem exposure, 253–254
Ecosystem effects from exposure to air pollution
need for a coordinated strategic program to assess, 79–80
tracking and characterizing, 254–259
Ecosystem exposure, tracking, 253–254
Ecosystem health, assessing and protecting, 274–275
Ecosystem studies
of air pollution effects on, 72–76
need for intensive, 373
Ecosystems, need for alternative forms of air quality standards to protect, 80
Effectiveness of the SIP process, 126–132
barriers to addressing multistate airshed pollution, 131
classifications and numbers of nonattainment areas remaining in nonattainment, 127
critical discussion of, 128–130
overemphasis on attainment demonstrations, 128–130
overly bureaucratic, 128
single-pollutant focus of, 130
EGUs. See Electric utility steam-generating units
EIIP. See Emission Inventory Improvement Program
EKMA. See Empirical kinetic modeling approach
Electric utility steam-generating units (EGUs), 189
for HAPs, focusing on mercury, 189
Electricity generation by fuel, in billion kilowatt hours, 40
Emission allowances
fairness in allocating, 208
opportunity for banking, 201–202
Emission-control strategy development in an attainment demonstration SIP, 115–120
federal measures, 115–119
institutional accountability in the SIP process, 124–126
mandatory local measures, 116–120
multistate regional measures, 120–124
relative roles of federal, state, and local controls, 117
technological change versus social or behavioral measures, 116
Emission controls on mobile sources
behavioral and societal strategies to reduce mobile-source emissions, 162–167
controlling emissions through certification standards on new vehicles and motors, 136–148
controlling in-use motor-vehicle emissions, 148–162
critical discussion of mobile-source emission-control programs, 167–172
implementing, 133–173
limitations of the mobile-source emission-control program, 172–173
strengths of the mobile-source emission-control program, 172
types of vehicles and engines regulated by AQM in the United States, 134–135
Emission inventories, 97–103, 131
and changes in average pollutant concentrations derived from air quality monitoring networks, 220
continuous emissions monitoring systems, 97
critical review of, 99–101
development, evaluation, and improvement of, 101
mobile-source, 101–103
Emission Inventory Improvement Program (EIIP), 100–101, 286
Emission-reduction credit (ERC), 197
Emission standards
for heavy-duty vehicles, 142–143
for light-duty vehicles and light-duty trucks, 137–142
Emission standards for nonroad engines, 143–145
contribution of nonroad emissions to mobile-source total and to manmade total, 143
Emissions
from existing facilities and vehicles, reducing, 19, 294–295
improving tracking of, 17, 285–286
major and area sources of, 175
spatial redistribution of, 205–207
substantially reducing, 201
Emissions-based air quality models, 105–112
empirical kinetic modeling approach, 109
first-generation 3D CTMs, urban-scale photochemical grid models for O3, 106–110
modern multipollutant, multiscale CTMs, 110–111
observation-based model for O3, 111–112
the VOC, NOx, and O3 challenge, 107–108
Emissions by vehicle model years for medium- and heavy-duty trucks
average NOx, 153
average PM23, 152
Emissions caps, setting and revising, 208–209
Emissions estimation models, 192–193
Emissions from heavy-duty vehicles and engines, 150–153
getting the lead out of gasoline, intended and unintended consequences of, 155
regulating the content of gasoline and diesel fuels, 153–162
Empirical kinetic modeling approach (EKMA), 107–109
Empirical rollback model, 104
Employee commute options (ECO), 163
Energy Policy and Conservation Act of 1975, 136
Enhancing the AQM system, 278–282
beyond one atmosphere to one environment, accounting for cross-media pollution, 280
dynamic AQM in a constantly changing technological society, 281
emphasizing performance rather than the process, 282
one atmosphere approach for assessing and controlling air pollutants, 278–279
principles for, 278–282
risk determined by actual exposure, 279–281
Environmental instrumentation, recommendations for advances in, 315
Environmental justice, 15
ensuring, 273–274
greater consideration of, 298
EPA. See U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Epichlorohydrin, 366
1,2-Epoxybutane, 366
ERC. See Emission-reduction credit
Estuarine systems
ecosystem effects from exposure to air pollution on, 257–258
expanding existing monitoring programs, 374
Ethyl acrylate, 366
Ethyl benzene, 366
Ethyl carbamate, 366
Ethyl chloride, 366
Ethylene dibromide, 366
Ethylene dichloride, 366
Ethylene glycol, 366
Ethylene imine, 366
Ethylene oxide, 366
Ethylene thiourea, 366
Ethylidene dichloride, 366
Evaluation of cap-and-trade approaches to air regulations, 205–210
banking emission allowances for the future, 207
compliance assurance and CEM, 210
fairness in allocating emission allowances, 208
implicit emission increases following transition to a trading program, 209–210
regional SO2 emission from electric utilities, 206
setting and revising the emissions cap, 208–209
spatial redistribution of emissions, 205–207
Evaluation of traditional control programs for major stationary sources, 188–190
electric steam-generating units regulation for HAPs, focusing on mercury, 189
Executive Orders, 51
No. 12898, 66
Exposure to ultrafine particles
enhancing assessment of, 17, 288
and monitoring for health response, 69
F
FACE. See Free air CO2 experiment
Facilities, major, technology-based standards imposed on, 186–188
Fairness, in allocating emission allowances, 208
Federal-Aid Highway Act of 1970, 165
Federal AQM legislation, 30–32
Federal emission-control measures, 115–116
Federal equivalent methods (FEM), 235
Federal implementation plan (FIP), 88, 90, 124–125, 300
Federal reference methods (FRM), 235
Federal Register, 51, 186, 213
Federal test procedure (for vehicle emissions) (FTP), 146
FEM. See Federal equivalent methods
FIA/FHM. See Forest Inventory and Analysis and Forest Health Monitoring Program
FIP. See Federal implementation plan
First-generation 3D CTMs, urban-scale photochemical grid models for O3, 106–110
Foliar injury to cotton, induced by chronic exposure to ozone, 54
Food Security Act, 373
Forest Inventory and Analysis and Forest Health Monitoring Program (FIA/ FHM), 256, 372–373
Forest issues, 254–257
ecosystem effects from exposure to air pollution in, 254–257
forest soils, 254–256
forest vegetation, 256–257
Forest survey plots on public lands, releasing exact locations of, 373
Four-chamber greenhouse-based exposure system, constructed to study effects of elevated CO2 on plants, 73
Free air CO2 experiment (FACE), 74–75, 259–260
used to elucidate forest ecosystem responses to elevated CO2, 75
FRM. See Federal reference methods
FTP. See Federal test procedure (for vehicle emissions)
Fuels
cost of, 163
regulating the content of, 153–162
timeline of significant federal and state regulations for motor vehicle, 156
Future of improving AQM, 39–41
electricity generation by fuel, in billion kilowatt hours, 40
high cancer risk counties for urban air toxics by county, 41
NAAQS violations in the continental United States, 40
potential violations of the PM2.5 and O3 NAAQS by county, 42
Future reformulated gasoline program, 159
G
GACT. See Generally available control technology
GAO. See U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO)
GAP. See General assistance program
Gas chromatography (GC), 194
Gaseous Pollutant Monitoring Program (of NPS) (GPMP), 226
Gasoline, regulating the content of, 153–162
GC. See Gas chromatography
GCVTC. See Grand Canyon Visibility Transport Commission
General assistance program (GAP), 90
Generally available control technology (GACT), 56–57, 67, 214
Gila River Indian Community, 89
Globalization, of trade, 281
Glycol ethers, 367
Goals for mitigating visibility degradation, 59
Goals of the Clean Air Act, 4, 32–33
curbing the use of chemicals having the potential to deplete the stratospheric O3 layer, 33
limiting the sources of and risks from exposure to HAPs (air toxics), 32
mitigating potentially harmful human and ecosystem exposure to the six criteria pollutants, 32
protecting and improving visibility impairment in wilderness areas and national parks, 33
reducing emissions of species that cause acid rain (SO2 and NOx), 33
Government on-site inspections of stationary sources, 192
GPMP. See Gaseous Pollutant Monitoring Program (NPS)
Grand Canyon Visibility Transport Commission (GCVTC), 123–124, 275
Grandfathering of facilities, and the application of NSR and PSD, 184
Greenhouse gas emissions, 363
H
H2S. See Hydrogen sulfide
Haagen-Smit diagram, 107
Hammer requirement, 189
Hazardous air pollutants (HAPs), 55–58, 227–228, 365–367
assessments, 248–249
current standard-setting procedure for HAPs, 55–58
developing a system to set priorities for, 20
emission reductions, efforts to track the effects of, 246–248
identifying new, 308
limiting the sources of and risks from exposure to air toxics, 32
potential classification scheme for, 307
static list of, 78–79
HCl. See Hydrogen chloride
HDV. See Heavy-duty vehicles and engines
Health-based standards, need for additional strategic planning of research that underpins, 76–77
Health effects studies, 67–72
dose-response relationships between pollutant exposure and human health effects and crop or vegetation effects, 68
exposure to ultrafine particles and monitoring for health response, 69
health impact of ozone on the human respiratory system, 70
at low pollutant concentrations, 15
personal exposure monitor measuring actual exposures to PM and gases during daily activities, 72
Heavy-duty vehicles (HDV) and engines, 47, 133–135, 142–143, 147, 150–151
in-use emissions from, 150–153
Heinz Center, 261
Heptachlor, 366
Hexachlorobenzene, 366
Hexachlorobutadiene, 366
Hexachlorocyclopentadiene, 366
Hexachloroethane, 366
Hexamethylene-1,6-diisocyanate, 366
Hexamethylphosphoramide, 366
Hexane, 366
High-emitting gasoline vehicles, 167–169
High-occupancy vehicle (HOV), 95
Highway capacity expansion, linked to air quality through the National Environment Policy Act, 164–167
Highway capacity expansion linked to air quality through the National Environment Policy Act, the conformity regulations, 165–167
Historical sequence of the periodic NAAQS reviews, and final decisions carried out by EPA since the passage of the 1970 CAA Amendments, 52
Hot-spot concentrations of HAPs, 263
greater consideration of, 298
need to address health risk associated with exposure in, 83–85
HOV. See High-occupancy vehicle
Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, 75
Human and technical resources, investing in, 18, 290
Human exposure to indoor PM pollution, sources of, 84
Human health and welfare
developing and implementing a system to assess and monitor, 17, 288–289
dose-response relationships between pollutant exposure and, 68
protecting in the absence of a threshold exposure, 272–273
Human respiratory system, health impact of ozone on, 70
Hydrazine, 366
Hydrochloric acid, 366
Hydrogen chloride (HCl), 194
Hydrogen fluoride, 366
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S), 194
Hydroquinone, 366
I
I/M. See Vehicle inspection and maintenance (I/M)
Identification of new toxicants, 308–309
identifying chemicals for regulatory oversight, 308–309
identifying new HAPs, 308
IM240. See Vehicle emission standards
Implementation of emission controls
continuing to track costs of, 17–18, 289–290
recommendations for, 371–374
See also Planning and implementation process
Implementation of emission controls on mobile sources, 133–173
behavioral and societal strategies to reduce mobile-source emissions, 162–167
controlling emissions through certification standards on new vehicles and motors, 136–148
controlling in-use motor-vehicle emissions, 148–162
critical discussion of mobile-source emission-control programs, 167–172
limitations of the mobile-source emission-control program, 172–173
strengths of the mobile-source emission-control program, 172
types of vehicles and engines regulated by AQM in the United States, 134–135
Implementation of emission controls on stationary sources, 174–216
area-source regulations, 212–214
cap-and-trade provisions for major stationary sources, 196–210
compliance assurance for traditional control programs, 190–196
design versus performance versus cap and trade, 176–177
evaluation of traditional control programs for major stationary sources, 188–190
limitations of stationary-source control programs, 215
major and area sources of emissions, 175
other technology-based standards imposed on major facilities, 186–188
other trading and voluntary stationary-source programs, 210–212
permits and standards for new or modified major stationary sources, 177–186
strengths of stationary-source control programs, 214
Implicit emission increases, following transition to a trading program, 209–210
IMPROVE. See Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments
Improvement of AQM, future of, 39–41
In-use motor-vehicle emissions, 148–162
average NOx emissions by vehicle model years for medium- and heavy-duty trucks, 153
average PM23 emissions by vehicle model years for medium- and heavy-duty trucks, 152
blood lead concentrations in the U.S. population, 156
California and Federal Reformulated Gasoline Programs, 158–159
future reformulated gasoline program, 159
from heavy-duty vehicles and engines, 150–153
light-duty vehicle and truck emissions inspection and maintenance programs, 148–150
percentages of U.S. trucks within selected model years (MY) used for various primary daily driving ranges, 154
remote sensing of in-use vehicle emissions, 150
timeline of significant federal and state regulations for motor vehicle fuels, 156
Incident total solar radiation, adding to National Weather Service meteorological data, 373
Indoor environments, need to address health risk associated with exposure in, 83–85
Inefficiency
in the application of NSR and PSD, 182–183
of the NSR and PSD requirements, 182–183
Innovative strategies, encouraging, 300–301
Institute for Tribal Environmental Professionals (ITEP), 90
Institutional framework
for accountability in the SIP process, 124–126
for monitoring exposure and ecosystem response, 371–372
Integrated ecosystem studies, 259–260
Integrated multipollutant plan, 298
Integrated program for criteria pollutants and hazardous air pollutants, recommendations for developing, 20–21, 304–311
Interagency Monitoring of Protected Visual Environments (IMPROVE), 226
Intercontinental transport, 15–16
addressing, 275–278
Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991 (ISTEA), 165–166
International Working Group on Environmental Justice (IWG), 67
Isophorone, 366
ISTEA. See Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1991
ITEP. See Institute for Tribal Environmental Professionals
Iterative nature of AQM, 4
IWG. See International Working Group on Environmental Justice
J
J curve, 108–109
Justice, ensuring environmental, 273–274
K
Kinetic modeling approach, empirical, 109
Knowledge gained, transfer to monitoring programs, 372
L
LAER. See Lowest achievable emissions rate
LDT. See Light-duty truck
LDV. See Light-duty vehicle
Lead (Pb)
compounds of, 367
emissions of, estimated U.S., by major source category, 251
getting it out of gasoline, intended and unintended consequences of, 155
phasing-out, 197–198
Lessons learned about air quality models, 112–114
delays in incorporating new scientific insights from models into policy design, 112–113
dynamic partnership between technical and regulatory communities, 112
need for regulators to apply model results appropriately, 112
need to subject models to comprehensive performance evaluations, 112
LEV. See Low-emissions vehicle
Light-duty truck (LDT), 133–134, 137, 140, 147–150, 155, 172–173
Light-duty vehicle (LDV), 47, 133–134, 137, 140–143, 148, 150, 155, 169–170, 172–173
inspection and maintenance programs, 148–150
Limitations
of establishing standards for one pollutant at a time, 80–83
of goal-setting procedures, 87
of the SIP process, 132
of stationary-source control programs, 215
of techniques for tracking progress in AQM, 266–267
Lindane (all isomers), 366
Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), 154
Local measures, mandatory, 116–120
Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP), 81
Long-term ecological research (LTER), 260
Long-term monitoring (LTM), 257
Long-term objectives, for challenges that will face AQM in the coming decade, 269
Low-emissions vehicle (LEV), 121, 141
Lowest achievable emissions rate (LAER), 94, 178, 180–183
LPG. See Liquefied petroleum gas
LRTAP. See Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution
LTER. See Long-term ecological research
LTM. See Long-term monitoring
M
MACT. See Maximum achievable control technology
Main components of an attainment-demonstration SIP, 96
Major stationary sources, permits and standards for new or modified, 177–186
Maleic anhydride, 366
MANE-VU. See Mid-Atlantic/Northeast Visibility Union
Manganese compounds, 367
Manmade total, and mobile-source total, 143
Market-based approaches, using whenever practical and effective, 18–19, 294
MATES. See Multiple air toxics exposure study
Maximum achievable control technology (MACT), 56–57, 67, 174, 186–190, 213–214, 272, 298, 304, 310–311
MDN. See Mercury Deposition Network
MDPVs. See Medium-duty passenger vehicles
Measurements of air quality, meteorology, and ecosystem responses, co-locating long-term, 372–373
Measuring the progress and assessing the benefits of AQM, 216–267
assessing ecosystem benefits from improved air quality, 252–261
assessing the economic benefits of air quality improvements, 261–265
limitations of techniques for tracking progress in AQM, 266–267
monitoring air quality, 220–241
monitoring pollutant emissions, 216–220
State of the Environment report as indicating a new paradigm emerging at the EPA, 267
strengths of techniques for tracking progress in AQM, 265–266
Medium- and heavy-duty trucks
average NOx emissions by vehicle model years for, 153
average PM23 emissions by vehicle model years for, 152
Medium-duty passenger vehicles (MDPVs), 134, 141
Mercury compounds, 55, 367, 370
Mercury Deposition Network (MDN), 230–231, 257
Methane (CH4), 205
Methoxychlor, 366
Methyl bromide, 366
Methyl chloride, 366
Methyl chloroform, 366
Methyl hydrazine, 366
Methyl iodide, 366
Methyl isobutyl ketone, 366
Methyl isocyanate, 366
Methyl methacrylate, 366
Methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE), 366
4,4'-Methylene-bis(2-chloroaniline), 366
Methylene chloride, 366
4,4'-Methylene dianiline, 366
4,4'-Methylene diphenyl diisocyanate, 366
Metropolitan planning organizations (MPOs), 165–166
Metropolitan statistical area (MSA), 90
Mid-Atlantic/Northeast Visibility Union (MANE-VU), 123
Midwest Regional Planning Organization (Midwest RPO), 123
Mineral fibers, fine, 367
MOBILE. See U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Mobile-source emission-control programs, 167–172
conformity, 170–172
controls on motorists’ behaviors, 170
high-emitting gasoline vehicles, 167–169
promotion of new technologies using vehicle emission standards, 167–168
reducing emissions from older and nonroad diesel engines, 169
regulating the content of gasoline and diesel fuels, 169–170
Mobile-source emission inventories, 101–103
Mobile-source total and to manmade total, contribution of nonroad emissions to, 143
Mobile sources, implementing emission controls on, 133–173
Model uncertainties, 113
Modeling, improving, 17, 287–288
Modeling analysis, 131
Models
need for comprehensive performance evaluations of, 112
receptor, 104–105
Modification, 178n
definition in the application of NSR and PSD, 185
definition of significant, nonroutine, 185
“significant and nonroutine,” definition in the application of NSR and PSD, 185
Monitoring actual human exposure, 249–252
estimated U.S. lead emissions by major source category, 251
Monitoring air quality, 220–241
air quality measurement techniques, 235–236
air quality monitoring discussion, 232–241
air quality trend analysis techniques, 236–237
atmospheric composition monitoring networks, 220–228
data availability, 237–240
deposition monitoring networks, 228–232
deposition monitoring networks rated Research Monitoring Network (AIRMoN), 232
monitoring long-distance transport of air pollutants, 241
monitoring objectives, 232–233
monitoring vertical profiles of air pollutants, 240–241
siting of air quality monitoring stations, 233–235
Monitoring objectives, 232–233
assessing program effectiveness, 233
identifying the problem versus finding the solution, 233
measuring critical species in a regular monitoring mode, 233
Monitoring pollutant emissions, 216–220
direct measurement, 216–217
long-distance transport of, 241
using ambient concentrations to confirm emission trends, 217–220
vertical profiles of, 240–241
Monitoring sites in the contiguous 48 United States, 229
Montreal protocol, 198
Motor vehicle fuels, timeline of significant federal and state regulations for, 156
Motor Vehicle Pollution Control Act, 137
Motorcycles, 134–135
Motorists’ vehicle use, regulation of, 162–163
MPOs. See Metropolitan planning organizations
MSA. See Metropolitan statistical area
MTBE. See Methyl tert-butyl ether
Multiple air toxics exposure study (MATES), 249
Multipollutant models
approaches that target the most significant risks, investing in research to facilitate, 18, 290
chronic effects on ecosystems, 369–370
emergence of, 114
and multiscale CTMs, 110–111
in the NAAQS review, and the standard-setting process, 21, 310
Multistate airshed pollution, barriers to addressing, 131
Multistate regional measures, 120–124
EPA’s regional haze rule, 122–123
Grand Canyon Visibility Transport Commission and the Western Regional Air Partnership, 123–124
O3 Transport Region and O3 Transport Assessment Group, 121–122
Multistate transport problems, 15–16
N
NAAQS. See National Ambient Air Quality Standards
NAAs. See Nonattainment areas
NADP. See National Atmospheric Deposition Program
NAMS. See National air monitoring stations
NAPAP. See National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program
Naphthalene, 366
NATA. See National Air Toxics Assessment
National, state, and local air monitoring stations, 220–224
National Acid Precipitation Assessment Program (NAPAP), 64–65, 110
role in shaping the acid rain provisions of the CAA Amendments of 1990, 64
National air monitoring stations (NAMS), 93, 221
National Air Quality and Emission Trends Report, 237
National Air Toxics Assessment (NATA), 58, 247–248, 272
National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), 3, 7, 11–12, 21, 46, 51, 61, 67, 72, 76–80, 86–88, 91–95, 111, 114, 132, 140, 157, 161, 177–178, 219, 270, 275, 295–299, 310–311
in effect as of January 2003, 49
meeting for O3 and PM2.5 and reducing regional haze, 270–271
potential violations of the PM2.5 and O3, 42
violations in the continental United States, 40
National Ambulatory Medical Center Survey, 245
National Atmospheric Deposition Program and Mercury Deposition Network (MDN), 230–231
National Atmospheric Deposition Program and National Trends Network (NADP/NTN), 228–230
monitoring sites in the contiguous 48 United States, 229
preliminary indications of progress on HAP control, 229
trends in annual benzene concentrations in metropolitan areas, 230
National Atmospheric Deposition Program (NADP), 228–230, 257
National Children’s Study (NCS), assessment of pollutant risk over time from, 245
National Commission on Risk Assessment and Risk Management, 85
National Core Monitoring Network (NCore), 232, 287
National Crop Loss Assessment Network (NCLAN), 258–259
National emission standards for hazardous air pollutants (NESHAPs), 55, 58
National emission standards mandated by Congress
and foliar injury to cotton induced by chronic exposure to ozone, 54
to help attain NAAQS, 53–54
National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA), 164–167
linking highway capacity expansion to air quality through, 164–167
National Estuaries Program (NEP), 374
National Estuarine Research Reserve System (in NOAA) (NERRS), 374
National Forest System (NFS), 256
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 245, 252
National Hospital Ambulatory Medical Care Survey, 245
National Hospital Discharge Survey, 245
National Human Exposure Assessment Survey (NHEXAS), 250
National low-emission vehicle (NLEV), 141–142
National Research Council (NRC), 3, 9, 23, 76, 103, 150, 271
National Science Foundation, 260
National Toxicology Program, 308
National Toxics Inventory (NTI), 145
National Trends Network (NTN), 228–231
National Tribal Environmental Council (NTEC), 90
National Weather Service (NWS), 237, 239, 373
Natural sources, contributing emissions resulting in the deposition of acidic compounds, 61
NCLAN. See National Crop Loss Assessment Network
NCore. See National Core Monitoring Network
NCS. See National Children’s Study
NEP. See National Estuaries Program
NEPA. See National Environmental Policy Act
NERRS. See National Estuarine Research Reserve System (in NOAA)
NESHAPs. See National Emission Standards for Hazardous Air Pollutants
Networks
atmospheric composition monitoring, 220–228
developing and implementing, 21, 312
monitoring, 12
Neuse River Estuary Modeling and Monitoring program, 374
New source performance standards (NSPS), 61, 174
New-source review (NSR), 90, 94–96, 174, 178, 181–185, 188, 212, 214
applicability issues with, 181–185
reforming, 185–186
New-source review (NSR) requirements, 179–185
applicability, 179–185
complexity and inefficiency, 182–183
issues with, 181–185
operation, 180–181
New standards, 15
New technologies, using vehicle emission standards, 167–168
New vehicles, 168
NFS. See National Forest System
NHANES. See National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
NHEXAS. See National Human Exposure Assessment Survey
Nickel compounds, 367
Nitrobenzene, 366
4-Nitrobiphenyl, 366
Nitrogen dioxide (NO2), 4, 48, 126
Nitrogen oxide (NO)
federal, multistate, state, and local emission-reduction measures, 119
national average emission categories for, 27
Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
emissions for medium- and heavy-duty trucks by vehicle model years, 153
emissions from coal-fired boilers by vintage, 184
emissions trading programs, 202–204
implementing emission controls on stationary sources, 203–204
national average emission categories for, 27
Northeast O3 transport region NOx budget trading program, 203–204
Regional Clean Air Management, 202–203
SIP call trading program for, 204
4-Nitrophenol, 366
2-Nitropropane, 366
N-Nitroso-N-methylurea, 366
N-Nitrosodimethylamine, 366
N-Nitrosomorpholine, 366
NLEV. See National low-emission vehicle
NMHC. See Nonmethane hydrocarbons
NMOG. See Nonmethane organic gases
NO. See Nitrogen oxide
NO2. See Nitrogen dioxide
NOAA. See U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Nonattainment areas (NAAs), 92
for O3 and CO, classification of, 92
remaining in nonattainment, classifications and numbers of, 127
Nonattainment in the SIP process, 91
classification of nonattainment areas for O3 and CO mandated in the CAA Amendments of 1990, 92
Clean Air Act requirements for SIPs, 94–96
procedures used to designate an area’s attainment status, 93
Nonmethane hydrocarbons (NMHC), 26
Nonmethane organic gases (NMOG), 139
NONROAD. See U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
Nonroad emissions, 144
contribution to mobile-source total and to manmade total, 143
Nonroutine modification, definition in the application of NSR and PSD, 185
Northeast O3 transport region NOx budget trading program, 203–204
NOx. See Nitrogen oxides
NPS. See U.S. National Park Service (NPS)
NRC. See National Research Council
NSPS. See New Source Performance Standards
NSR. See New-source review
NTEC. See National Tribal Environmental Council
NTN. See National Trends Network
NWS. See National Weather Service
O
O2. See Diatomic oxygen
O3. See Ozone
OAQPS. See Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (of EPA)
OBD. See On-board diagnostics
OBDII, 149
Observation-based model for O3, 111–112
ODPs. See Ozone-depleting potentials
Off-normal emissions, 195–196
Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards (of EPA) (OAQPS), 50
Office of Environmental Justice (of EPA), 50
Office of Management and Budget (of the White House) (OMB), 39, 51, 262
Office of Pollution Prevention and Toxics (of EPA), 78n, 272n
Office of Research and Development (of EPA) (ORD), 48
Office of Science and Technology Policy (of the White House) (OSTP), 39, 261
Older facilities remaining in operation, and the application of NSR and PSD, 183–184
On-board diagnostics (OBD), 149
OBDII, 149
One atmosphere approach, for assessing and controlling air pollutants, 278–279
Open-market
and other forms of trading, 210–212
and other noncapped forms of trading, 211
Operation of the NSR and PSD requirements, 180–181
ORD. See Office of Research and Development (of EPA)
OSHA. See U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA)
OSTP. See Office of Science and Technology Policy (of the White House)
OTAG. See Ozone Transport Assessment Group
OTC. See Ozone Transport Commission
OTR. See Ozone Transport Region
Over-reliance on models for O3 SIPs, 113–114
Oxides of nitrogen (NO, NO2, or Nx). See Nitrogen dioxide;
Nitrogen oxides
Ozone-depleting potentials (ODPs), 198
Ozone Monitoring Sites in the United States, 234
Ozone (O3), 4, 24, 28–29, 33, 37, 41–43, 58, 73–77, 90–96, 107–117, 121, 129, 132, 175, 181, 238, 268
emissions-based models for, 105
foliar injury to cotton induced by chronic exposure to, 54
health impact on the human respiratory system, 70
observation-based model for, 111–112
Ozone Transport Assessment Group (OTAG), 103n, 121–122, 131, 270, 275
Ozone Transport Commission (OTC), 120–121, 131, 137, 214, 255, 275
Ozone Transport Region (the states from Maine to Virginia and Washington, DC) (OTR), 121–122, 203
Ozonesonde sites, in North America, 224
P
PACE. See Pollution Abatement Cost and Expenditures Survey
PAMS. See Photochemical assessment monitoring stations
Parametric emissions monitoring (PEM), 192–194
Parathion, 366
Particulate matter (PM), 4, 26, 37–41, 59, 72, 77, 84, 105, 130–132, 151, 169, 217, 226–227, 235–236
with aerodynamic equivalent diameters of 2.5 micrometers (mm) or less (PM2.5), 27, 41, 48, 52, 91, 93, 111, 115, 168, 173, 227, 235, 275
with aerodynamic equivalent diameters of 10 (mm) or less (PM10), 14, 27, 48, 76, 93, 126, 142, 235, 262
Partnership, between technical and regulatory communities, 112
Passenger car exhaust emissions, evolution of California and federal tailpipe standards on, 138–139
Pb. See Lead
PBDEs. See Polybrominated diphenyl ethers
PCBs. See Polychlorinated biphenyls
PEM. See Parametric emissions monitoring
Pentachloronitrobenzene, 366
Pentachlorophenol, 366
Performance-oriented control strategies to support local, state, and tribal efforts, recommendations for expanding national and multistate, 18–19, 291–296
Periodic source testing, 193
Permits and standards for new or modified major stationary sources, 177–186
background, 178–179
NSR and PSD requirements, 179–185
reforming NSR, 185–186
voluntary programs to improve, 212
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), 81, 252, 280
Personal exposure monitor, measuring actual exposures to PM and gases during daily activities, 72
Pew Environmental Health Commission, assessment of pollutant risk over time from, 244–245
Phenol, 366
p-Phenylenediamine, 366
Phosgene, 367
Phosphine, 367
Phosphorus, 367
Photochemical assessment monitoring stations (PAMS), 224–226, 234–235
network of, 225
Phthalic anhydride, 367
Planning and implementation process, 20, 298–304
encourage innovative strategies, 300–301
enhance public agency performance and accountability, 303–304
focus on tracking and assessing performance, 299
institute a dynamic, collaborative review, 299–300
retain and improve conformity requirement, 301–303
urban heat islands and other land-use impacts, 302
PM. See Particulate matter
PM2.5. See Particulate matter, with aerodynamic equivalent diameters of 2.5 micrometers (mm) or less
PM10. See Particulate matter, with aerodynamic equivalent diameters of 10 (mm) or less
PM23 emissions, for medium- and heavy-duty trucks, by vehicle model years, 152
PM25 supersites, locations of initial, 228
Policy design, delays in incorporating new scientific insights from models into, 112–113
Political influence, and the cost of fuel, 163
Pollutants
instituting a dynamic review of classifications of, 20, 309
trend analysis in O3, 238
Pollution Abatement Cost and Expenditures survey (PACE), 17, 265, 267, 289
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), 79, 280
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 367
Polycyclic organic matter, 367
Pope/American Cancer Society Study, 77
POPs. See Persistent organic pollutants
Prevention of significant deterioration (PSD) requirement, 90, 174, 182–185, 214
applicability issues with, 181–185
complexity and inefficiency, 182–183
operation, 180–181
Priority setting, 84–86
Probability sample designs, for monitoring, 373
Procedure for setting NAAQS, 48–51
NAAQS in effect as of January 2003, 49
process by which the EPA administrator reviews and sets a new NAAQS, 50
Procedures used to designate an area’s attainment status, 93
Process-based models of ecosystem response to pollutants, for regional assessments, 370
Process by which the EPA administrator reviews and sets a new NAAQS, 50
Program effectiveness, assessing, 233
Progress
assessing status and measuring, 13
on HAP control, preliminary indications of, 229
in reducing HAPs-related health effects for the future, 249
1,3-Propane sultone, 367
b-Propiolactone, 367
Propionaldehyde, 367
Propoxur (Baygon), 367
Propylene dichloride, 367
Propylene oxide, 367
1,2-Propylenimine, 367
Protection of ecosystems
and establishment of secondary NAAQS, 51–53
and other aspects of public welfare, 15
recommendations for enhancing, 21, 311–313
PSD. See Prevention of significant deterioration
Public agency performance and accountability, 303–304
Q
Quality assurance/quality control (QA/QC), 235–236
Quinoline, 367
Quinone (p-benzoquinone), 367
R
RACT. See Reasonably available control technology
Radiation and Indoor Environments Laboratory, 90
Radionuclides (including radon), 55, 367
RADM. See Regional acid deposition model
Reactive hydrocarbons (RHC), 26
Reactive organic gas (ROG), 26
Reasonably available control technology (RACT), 94, 116, 129, 174, 186, 203
Receptor models, 104–105
RECLAIM. See Regional Clean Air Management Program
Recommendations for developing an integrated program for criteria pollutants and hazardous air pollutants, 20–21, 304–311
addressing multiple pollutants in the NAAQS review and standard-setting process, 21, 310
developing a system to set priorities for hazardous air pollutants, 20
enhancing assessment of residual risk, 21, 310–311
findings, 304–305
identifying new toxicants, 308–309
instituting a dynamic review of pollutant classification, 20, 309
listing potentially dangerous but unregulated air pollutants for regulatory attention, 21, 306–309
potential classification scheme for hazardous pollutants, 307
proposed actions, 306–311
Recommendations for enhancing protection of ecosystems and other aspects of public welfare, 21, 311–313
completing a comprehensive review of standards to protect public welfare, 21
designing and implementing controls, 21, 312–313
developing and implementing networks for comprehensive ecosystem monitoring, 21, 312
establishing acceptable exposure levels for natural and managed ecosystems, 21, 312
findings, 311–312
promulgating secondary standards, 21, 312
proposed actions, 312–313
tracking progress toward attainment of secondary standards, 21, 313
Recommendations for expanding national and multistate performance-oriented control strategies to support local, state, and tribal efforts, 18–19, 291–296
addressing multistate transport problems, 19, 295–296
emphasizing technology-neutral standards for emission control, 18, 293–294
expanding federal emission-control measures, 18, 292–293
findings, 291–292
proposed actions, 292–296
reducing emissions from existing facilities and vehicles, 19, 294–295
using market-based approaches whenever practical and effective, 18–19, 294
Recommendations for implementing AQM, 371–374
adding incident total solar radiation to National Weather Service meteorological data, 373
co-locating long-term measurements of air quality, meteorology, and ecosystem responses, 372–373
establishing baselines of ecosystem condition, 372
evaluating controls on atmospheric sources of nitrogen, 374
expanding EPA’s Temporally Integrated Monitoring of Ecosystems/Long-Term Monitoring (TIME/LTM), 373–374
expanding existing estuarine monitoring programs, 374
institutional framework for monitoring exposure and ecosystem response, 371–372
intensive ecosystem studies, 373
measuring a comprehensive suite of indicators consistently, 372
probability sample designs for monitoring, 373
releasing exact locations of forest survey plots on public lands, 373
transference of knowledge gained to monitoring programs, 372
Recommendations for needed research and development, 369–371
chronic effects of multiple air pollutants on ecosystems, 369–370
methods for monitoring ambient air quality in ecosystems, 371
process-based models of ecosystem response to pollutants for regional assessments, 370
risk assessment research, 371
tools for assessing impacts of pollutants on biological species, populations, and ecosystems, 370–371
Recommendations for strengthening scientific and technical capacity to assess risk and track progress, 17–18, 284–290
continuing to track implementation costs, 17–18, 289–290
developing and implementing a system to assess and monitor human health and welfare effects, 17, 288–289
enhancing air pollution monitoring, 17, 286–287
enhancing exposure assessment, 17, 288
findings, 284–285
improving emissions tracking, 17, 285–286
improving modeling, 17, 287–288
investing in human and technical resources, 18, 290
investing in research to facilitate multipollutant approaches that target the most significant risks, 18, 290
proposed actions, 285–290
Recommendations for transforming the SIP process, 19–20, 296–304
ensuring a successful transition to AQMP, 304
findings, 296–297
proposed actions, 297–304
reforming the planning and implementation process, 20, 298–304
transforming IT into an AQM plan, 19, 297–298
Reducing emissions from older and nonroad diesel engines, 169
Reforming NSR, 185–186
Reformulated gasoline (RFG), 157–161, 169–170, 173
Regional acid deposition model (RADM), 64, 110
Regional Clean Air Management Program (RECLAIM), 202–203, 206–207, 210
Regional haze rule, 122
Regional planning organizations (RPOs), 120
Regulation
conformity, 165–167
of the content of gasoline and diesel fuels, 153–162, 169–170
of motorists’ vehicle use, 162–163
Regulators, applying model results appropriately, 112
Regulatory oversight, identifying chemicals for, 308–309
Reid vapor pressure (the vapor pressure of a petroleum product at 100°F) (RVP), 157, 160–161, 173
Reinventing Government Program, 212
Remote sensing, 195
of in-use vehicle emissions, 150
technology for, 150
Research and development, recommendations for needed, 369–371
Residual risk, enhancing assessment of, 21, 310–311
Responses
of plants, to ambient levels of O3, 74
of sensitive ecosystems to acid rain emission controls, ecosystem effects from exposure to air pollution in, 255
Reviews needed (dynamic and collaborative), 299–300
RFG. See Reformulated gasoline
RHC. See Reactive hydrocarbons
Risk assessment, 84–86
Risk assessment research, 371
Risk to human health and public welfare
determined by actual exposure, 279–281
over time, from pollutants, assessment of, 244–246
quantifying, 35
ROG. See Reactive organic gas
Rollback model, empirical, 104
RPO. See Regional planning organizations
RVP. See Reid vapor pressure (the vapor pressure of a petroleum product at 100°F)
S
SAB. See Science Advisory Board (of EPA)
Safety factors, 55
Sanctions clock, 125
Savings from the SO2 emissions trading program, 200
SCAQMD. See South Coast Air Quality Management District
Science, role of, 35–37
designing, testing, and implementing technologies and systems for efficiently preventing or reducing air pollutant emissions, 36
designing and implementing air quality monitoring technologies and methods for documenting pollutant exposures, 36
quantifying risks to human health and public welfare, 35
quantifying the expected demographic and economic trends with and without air pollution control strategies, 35
quantifying the source-receptor relationships relating pollutant emission rates to ambient pollutant concentrations, 35
tracking changes in pollutant emissions, pollutant concentrations, and human health and welfare outcomes, 36
Science Advisory Board (of EPA) (SAB), 50
Scientific and technical capacity to assess risk and track progress, recommendations for strengthening, 17–18, 284–290
Scientific basis for setting standards, 67–86
accounting for lack of thresholds for health effects of some criteria pollutants, 77–78
concentration-response estimation on cardiopulmonary disease mortality, 77
“critical loads” and Europe’s approach to setting acid rain goals, 81–82
health effects studies, 67–72
limitations of establishing standards for one pollutant at a time, 80–83
need for a coordinated strategic program to assess ecosystem effects, 79–80
need for additional strategic planning of research that underpins health-based standards, 76–77
need for alternative forms of air quality standards to protect ecosystems, 80
need to address health risk associated with exposure in hot spots and indoor environments, 83–85
risk assessment and priority setting, 84–86
sources of human exposure to indoor PM pollution, 84
static list of HAPs, 78–79
studies of air pollution effects on ecosystems, 72–76
SCR. See Selective catalytic reduction
Sealed housing evaporative determination (SHED) test, 147
Secondary standards
tracking progress toward attainment of, 21, 313
Selective catalytic reduction (SCR), 183n
Selenium compounds, 367
Sequential activities carried out by the nation’s AQM system, 34
Setting goals and standards, 45–87
goals for mitigating visibility degradation, 59
limitations of goal-setting procedures, 87
overview of air quality standards, 46–47
the scientific basis for setting standards, 67–86
the standard-setting process, 47–58
strengths of goal-setting procedures, 86
SFTP. See Supplemental federal test procedure (for vehicle emissions)
SHED. See Sealed housing evaporative determination
Simplicity, 201
Single-pollutant focus of SIPs, 130
SIPs. See State implementation plans
Siting of air quality monitoring stations, 233–235
Ozone Monitoring Sites in the United States, 234
SLAMS. See State and local air monitoring stations
Small Business Regulatory Enforcement Fairness Act, 51
SO2. See Sulfur dioxide
Soil organic matter (SOM), 254
Soils, forest, 254–256
SOM. See Soil organic matter
Source “markers,” 82
Source-receptor relationships, relating pollutant emission rates to ambient pollutant concentrations, 35
South Coast Air Quality Management District (SCAQMD), 79, 129, 183n, 202–203, 210, 249, 297
Spatial redistribution of emissions, 205–207
Sport utility vehicle (SUV), 133, 173
STAGs. See State and tribal assistance grants
Standard-setting process, 47–58
criteria pollutants, 47–48, 304
hazardous air pollutants, 55–58
historical sequence of the periodic NAAQS reviews and final decisions carried out by EPA since the passage of the 1970 CAA Amendments, 52
national emission standards mandated by Congress to help attain NAAQS, 53–54
procedure for setting NAAQS, 48–51
protection of ecosystems and establishment of secondary NAAQS, 51–53
scientific basis for setting, 67–86
See also Permits and standards for new or modified major stationary sources
Standards for mitigating effects of acid rain, 59–67
controls on acid rain precursors before the CAA Amendments of 1990, 61–65
environmental justice as an air quality goal, 65–67
impact of haze on visibility, 60
Standards to protect public welfare complete comprehensive review of, 21
setting, 12
STAPPA-ALAPCU. See State and Territorial Air Pollution Program Administrators and Association of Local Air Pollution Control Officials
State and local air monitoring stations (SLAMS), 93, 221
State and Territorial Air Pollution Program Administrators and Association of Local Air Pollution Control Officials (STAPPA-ALAPCU), 100, 286
State and tribal assistance grants (STAGs), 90
State implementation plans (SIPs), 3, 6, 11, 19, 88–132, 165, 178, 204, 270–271, 287, 291, 296, 364
attainment, 92
designing and implementing control strategies through, 88–132
the effectiveness of the SIP process, 126–132
limitations of the SIP process, 132
main components of an attainment-demonstration SIP, 96
the main components of an attainment-demonstration SIP, 96–126
nonattainment, 91
overview of SIP process, 88–96
recommendations for transforming, 19–20, 296–304
strengths of the SIP process, 131–132
tribes and the Clean Air Act, 89–91
unclassifiables, 92
State of the Environment report as indicating a new paradigm emerging at the EPA, 267
State of the Nation’s Ecosystems, The, 261
Stationary-source programs, trading and voluntary, 210–212
Stationary sources, implementing emission controls on, 174–216
Stratospheric O3 layer
curbing the use of chemicals having the potential to deplete the, 33
protecting, 363
Strengths
of goal-setting procedures, 86
of the SIP process, 131–132
of stationary-source control programs, 214
of techniques for tracking progress in AQM, 265–266
Studies of air pollution effects on ecosystems, 72–76
four-chamber greenhouse-based exposure system constructed to study effects of elevated CO2 on plants, 73
free air CO2 experiment (FACE) used to elucidate forest ecosystem responses to elevated CO2, 75
response of plants to ambient levels of O3, 74
Styrene, 367
Styrene oxide, 367
Sulfur dioxide (SO2), 4, 14, 26–27, 33, 37–39, 47–48, 51, 59–65, 93, 174, 217, 255, 268
national average emission categories for, 27
Sulfur in gasoline, restrictions on, 161
Supplemental federal test procedure (for vehicle emissions) (SFTP), 146
Surface O3 monitoring sites, in North America, 224
Surface waters, ecosystem effects from exposure to air pollution on, 257–258
SUV. See Sport utility vehicle
T
Tailpipe standards on passenger car exhaust emissions, evolution of California and federal, 138–139
TCM. See Transportation control measure
TCP. See Transportation control plan
TEA-21. See Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century
Technological innovation
and emission controls, 140
versus social or behavioral measures, 116
Technologies and systems for efficiently preventing or reducing air pollutant emissions, designing, testing, and implementing, 36
Technology-based standards imposed on major facilities, 186–188
acid rain NOx provisions, 187
maximum achievable control technology, 187–188
reasonably available control technology, 186
Technology-neutral standards for emission control, emphasizing, 18, 293–294
Temporally integrated monitoring of ecosystems (TIME), 257, 373–374
expanding, 373–374
2,3,7,8-Tetrachloro-dibenzo-p-dioxin, 367
1,1,2,2-Tetrachloroethane, 367
Tetrachloroethylene, 367
Three-dimensional (3D) CTMs, first-generation, 106–110
TIME. See Temporally integrated monitoring of ecosystems
Timeline of significant federal and state regulations for motor vehicle fuels, 156
TIP. See Tribal implementation plan
Titanium tetrachloride, 367
Title V operating permit program, 190–191
TLEV. See Transitional low-emissions vehicle
Toluene, 367
2,4-Toluene diamine, 367
2,4-Toluene diisocyanate, 367
o-Toluidine, 367
TOMS. See Total O3 mapping spectrometer satellite
Tools, for assessing impacts of pollutants on biological species, populations, and ecosystems, 370–371
Total mobile-source emissions, 148
Total O3 mapping spectrometer (TOMS) satellite, 276
Total suspended particulate matter (TSP), 48, 227
Toxaphene, 367
Toxic air pollutants, 15, 272–273
Toxic Substances Control Act, 79
Toxicants, identifying new, 308–309
Toxics Release Inventory (TRI), 237, 308
Tracking and assessing performance, 299
Tracking and characterizing ecosystem effects from exposure to air pollution, 254–259
agriculture, 258–259
forest issues, 254–257
response of sensitive ecosystems to acid rain emission controls, 255
sensitive surface waters and estuarine systems, 257–258
Tracking changes, in pollutant emissions, pollutant concentrations, and human health and welfare outcomes, 36
Tracking ecosystem exposure, 253–254
Trading and voluntary stationary-source programs, 210–212
open-market and other forms of trading, 210–212
open-market and other noncapped forms of trading, 211
voluntary programs to improve permitting processes, 212
Trading programs implemented early on in the United States, 197–198
chlorofluorocarbon phase-out, 198
emission-reduction credit programs, 197
lead phase-out, 197–198
Traditional control programs
compliance assurance for, 190–196
for major stationary sources, evaluating, 188–190
Transformation of the nation’s AQM system to meet the challenges of the coming decades, 268–315
adapting the AQM system to climate change, 277–278
addressing multistate, cross-border, and intercontinental transport, 275–278
assessing and protecting ecosystem health, 274–275
ensuring environmental justice, 273–274
long-term objectives for challenges that will face AQM in the coming decade, 269
meeting NAAQS for O3 and PM2.5 and reducing regional haze, 270–271
principles for enhancing the AQM system, 278–282
protecting human health and welfare in the absence of a threshold exposure, 272–273
recommendations for an enhanced AQM system, 283–313
toxic air pollutants, 272–273
Transformation of the SIP process into an AQM plan, 19, 297–298
greater consideration of hot spots and environmental justice, 298
integrated multipollutant plan, 298
Transitional low-emissions vehicle (TLEV), 141
Transparency, 201
Transportation control measure (TCM), 95
Transportation control plan (TCP), 162–163
Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century (TEA-21), 165
Trends in nationwide SO2 and NO2 emissions, 63
versus ambient concentrations of various primary pollutants (PM10, NO, SO2, Pb, and CO), 14
Trends in wet sulfate deposition in the United States, 231
TRI. See Toxics release inventory
Tribal implementation plan (TIP), 88–89
Tribes and the Clean Air Act, SIP processes in, 89–91
1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene, 367
1,1,2-Trichloroethane, 367
Trichloroethylene, 367
2,4,5-Trichlorophenol, 367
2,4,6-Trichlorophenol, 367
Triethylamine, 367
Trifluralin, 367
2,2,4-Trimethylpentane, 367
Truck emissions, inspection and maintenance programs, 148–150
TSP. See Total suspended particulate matter
U
UAM. See Urban airshed model
ULEV. See Ultra-low-emissions vehicle
Ultra-low-emissions vehicle (ULEV), 141
Ultrafine particles, exposure to, and monitoring for health response, 69
Unclassifiables, in the SIP process, 92
United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE), 81
Urban air toxics, counties at high cancer risk from, 41
Urban airshed model (UAM), 107–108, 110
Urban heat islands, 302
U.S. air quality management (AQM) efforts, 29–35
federal AQM legislation, 30–32
sequential activities carried out by the nation’s AQM system, 34
U.S. Court of Appeals, Seventh Circuit, 185
U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), 256, 259, 289, 371
U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), 39, 302
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 3, 8, 11–12, 19, 22, 33–34, 37, 45–47, 51–76, 80, 98, 115, 131, 146–152, 162, 175, 216
computer program to estimate emissions from mobile sources not used on roads (aircraft, trains, farm equipment, etc.) (NONROAD), 102
computer program to estimate mobile-source emissions (MOBILE), 101–102, 148, 171
regional haze rule, 122–123
trends in estimated nationwide pollutant emissions and average measured concentrations, 218
U.S. Forest System, 289
U.S. General Accounting Office (GAO), 102, 192–195
U.S. Geological Survey (USGS), 289
U.S. monitoring networks, major, 222–223
U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 241, 289
U.S. National Park Service (NPS), 226
U.S. Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), 85
U.S. truck percentages within selected model years (MY) used for various primary daily driving ranges, 154
USDA. See U.S. Department of Agriculture
USGS. See U.S. Geological Survey
Utility companies, electric, 65
V
Vegetation
dose-response relationships between pollutant exposure and, 68
forest, 256–257
Vehicle emission standards
promotion of new technologies using, 167–168
test using a dynamometer lasting for 240 seconds (IM240), 148
Vehicle inspection and maintenance (I/M), 95, 102–103, 116, 129, 148–149, 217
Vehicle miles traveled (VMT), 133, 151, 164, 301
Vinyl acetate, 367
Vinyl bromide, 367
Vinylidene chloride, 367
Visibility impairment
monitoring, 226
in wilderness areas and national parks, protecting and improving, 33
Visibility Improvement State and Tribal Association of the Southeast (VISTAS), 123
VMT. See Vehicle miles traveled
VOCs. See Volatile organic compounds
Volatile organic compounds (VOCs), 26–28, 95–96, 99, 103n, 107–108, 111, 117–118, 130, 139, 143, 155, 175, 194, 217
federal, state, and local emission-reduction measures, 118
national average emission categories for, 27
Voluntary programs, to improve the permitting processes, 212
W
Weight-of-evidence approach, in the attainment demonstration, 114–115
WEPCO. See Wisconsin Electric Power Company
Western Regional Air Partnership (WRAP), 89, 91, 121, 123–124