Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page 67
Chapter 3
Review of Projects Identified in the Action Plan
The Water Security Research and Technical Support Action Plan (Action Plan)
identifies a lengthy and substantive list of research and technical support projects that, if
completed, would support an(l advance water-security-related prevention, mitigation,
response, and recovery activities. The subsequent draft Water Security Research and
Technical Support Implementation Plan (Implementation Plan) (EPA, 2003b) provides
additional information on near-term projects related to drinking water and the Action
Plan's implementation. Consistent with a recommendation in the panel's first report (see
Part I), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is currently working in cooperation
with the Water Environment Research Foundation (WERE) and other stakeholders to
more carefully consider wastewater security needs, holding a stakeholder meeting in
August 2003. Because this activity is anticipated to lead to many revisions in the
wastewater section of the Action Plan, this report focuses primarily on the projects to
support drinking-water security needs, with some evaluation of wastewater projects
currently underway and suggestions on an overall strategy for addressing wastewater
. . .
priorities.
In the panel's first report (see Part I) the general drinking water and wastewater
security needs were evaluated. This chapter presents an evaluation of the research and
technical support projects identified in the Action Plan to support those water security
needs. The water security needs and supporting projects from the Action Plan are
included, for reference, in boxes throughout the chapter (Boxes 3-1 to 3-84. Although the
needs (in bold) were not prioritized in the Action Plan and were merely sequenced in a
logical order, the projects listed under each water security need were arranged in priority
order. Despite the many revisions and several additional needs suggested by the pane} in
its first report, for simplicity and ease of comparison with the first report, this chapter is
organized according to the numbering scheme originally presented in the Action Plan.
Changes suggested in Part I are noted where relevant.
As stated in Chapter 2, the basic organizing principles of the EPA water security
research and technical support agenda should emphasize a continuing increase in the
effectiveness and efficiency of our response ant! recovery capacity while identifying cost-
67
OCR for page 68
68
A Review of the EPA Water Security Action Plan
effective countermeasures based on an understanding of the nature and likelihood of
potential threats. The projects presented in the Action Plan are reviewed in that context
within this chapter. The Action Plan presents a total of 123 projects, and, except where
noted in the discussions below, the projects are appropriate for the high intensity, short
time-frame effort envisioned by the EPA. Consistent with the recommendations in
Chapter 2, many of the projects emphasize technical support and focus on short-term,
data mining efforts. To streamline this review, the panel focused its comments on
specific aspects of project content, scope, prioritization, timing, and sequencing for
certain projects only. Projects that were considered appropriate are not discussed at
length; thus, the amount of discussion on individual projects should not be viewed as a
reflection of the panel's priorities.
DRINKING WATER
The research and technical support projects for preventing, preparing for, and
responding to physical, cyber, and contaminant attacks on drinking water supply systems
are categorized in the Action Plan in six major sections: (1) protecting physical and cyber
infrastructure, (2) identifying drinking water contaminants, (3) improving analytical
methodologies and monitoring systems for drinking water, (4) containing, treating,
decontaminating, and disposing of contaminated water and materials, (5) planning for
contingencies and addressing infrastructure interdependencies, anti (6) targeting impacts
on human health and informing the public about risks. The projects are discussed in
detail below, and a chart highlighting suggested revisions to the time lines (including
additional recommended projects) is provided in Appendix A.
Protecting Physical and Cyber Infrastructure (Action Plan Section 3.1)
The projects described within this need involve identifying physical threats to water
systems, understanding the consequences of physical attacks on those systems, and
identifying countermeasures to such attacks. These are core activities that establish the
character and level of threat, and collect and disseminate information for cognizant
officials at water utilities.
Project Evaluation
The suite of projects described appears to adequately address the needs identified in
the original Action Plan (see Box 3-1), although some suggestions are provided to
improve the projects. In addition to these, a new 'need' was suggested in the panel's first
report (see Part I) that involved assessing costs and benefits of various countermeasures,
including immediate ancillary benefits, and communicating the value of water and
increased water securities to the public. Several projects should be developed to address
this new need, for which suggestions are outlined below.
3.1.a Identification and Prioritization of Physical Threats. The projects
concerning an updated identification and prioritization of threats are clearly important,
and the Action Plan recognizes this in the timing of these projects. The project to
identify likely physical and cyber threat scenarios (project 3.1.a.1) based on input from
threat analysts and the intelligence community is already underway. This project should
also recognize dissemination of malicious disinformation as a potential vulnerability, as
recommended in the panel's first report (see Part I). The project to examine lessons
OCR for page 69
Review of Projects Identified in the Action Plan
69
learned by utilities in assessing their vulnerabilities (project 3.1.a.2) is also already
underway through the American Water Works Association Research Foundation
(AwwaRF), even though its outcomes may be of greater value farther in the future than at
present. Developing lessons learned takes time; outcomes have to be evaluated before
they become lessons, and organizations may be reluctant to share negative outcomes.
The project should also include lessons learned from other infrastructure sectors (e.g.,
electric power utilities, the chemical industry).
Two projects are proposed to evaluate and refine the vulnerability assessment (VA)
methodologies for drinking water utilities (projects 3.1.a.3 and 3.1.a.4~. The evaluation
of the basic VA methodology (e.g., Risk Assessment Methodology for Water or RAM-
W) is generic to all utility applications and clearly valuable. Nevertheless, these projects
appear of lower importance than projects 3.1.a.1 or 3.1.a.2 because projects 3.1.a.3 and
3.1.a.4 focus primarily on refining existing methodologies rather than on the overall need
of identifying physical anti cyber threats. If financial resources are limited, they could be
postponed. Refinement of the vulnerability assessment process should already be part of
a good comprehensive planning process. In any event, it would make sense to perform
the 3.1.a.4 project toward the end of the Action Plan life span so that information
resulting from other projects can be incorporated into this analysis. Project 3.1.a.4 may
not need to start as early as is currently scheduled, and it may require less time than the
proposed 16-month time line.
_ . . _ .
3.1.b Understanding and Documentation of the Consequences of Physical or
Cyber Attacks. The emphasis under this need! for "thorough understanding and
documentation of consequences of physical or cyber attacks" seems to be on cascading
consequences in infrastructure networks, not on traditional distribution system models,
although the nature of the proposed models was not described in the draft Implementation
Plan. While such cascading effects are critical to network performance, it must be
remembered that utilities deal with outages and natural hazards in the normal course of
their business, including cascading effects. Operators understand the behavior of their
own distribution networks, and most large utilities already use simulation models of their
distribution networks. As a result, project 3.1.b.1 should not be given as high a priority
as the 3. Ma projects. Overall, the projects should be refined so that their contributions to
current understanding are clearer, and these projects should take advantage of
consequence assessments prepared for other infrastructure sectors.
3.1.c Countermeasures to Prevent or Mitigate the Effects of Physical and Cyber
Attacks. The 3. l.c projects concerning "a suite of countermeasures," which largely have
to do with technical information collection and dissemination, are all important ant!
reasonable to meet the identified need and should proceed as described. All water
utilities will benefit from this information, but small and midsized utilities will
particularly appreciate the findings from these projects, especially if the projects lead to
guidelines for prevention and mitigation.
The project to prepare voluntary design standards (~3.1.c.1) refers to pulling together
recommendations for construction, hardening, and other aspects of utility security
operations, so that facility designs can benefit from security experiences of the past. This
project should emphasize the development of a "best practices" manual. Three years
appears to be too long for the effort described.
The project to develop standards for minimum security protection of Supervisory
Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems (~3.1.c.2) should be informed by parallel
OCR for page 70
70
A Review of the EPA Water Security Action Plan
work in other industries such as chemicals and energy and by federal initiatives such as
the National Institute for Standards and Technology s (NIST) Common Criteria, which
includes a SCADA system security standard.
Additional Research and Technical Support Needs
In the pane] s first report (see Part I), a fourth need was added to section 3.1, for
which appropriate projects should be developed. This fourth need statement reads:
Assessment of costs and benefits (direct and inclirect) associated with various
countermeasures; and development of a program to assist implementing
· . - , · . · - . . - . - . - ~ · · . - · .. .. . . -
organlzatlons (lncludlng water utllltles) in communicating with the pUDllC,
customers, rate regulators, and local elected and appointed officials regarding the
value of water, increased water systems security, and increased rate structures to
create the necessary financial resources to implement such countermeasures.
Costs and benefits can only be meaningfully evaluated in the context of specific threat
scenarios; thus, this project will need to be closely integrated with projects 3.1.a.1 and
3.2.a.2. Cost and benefit information will help utility managers, customers, and elected
and appointed officials assess the value of specific countermeasures (e.g., hardening
facilities or contaminant detection technologies) and recognize the need to finance
appropriate security measures, including effective response and recovery programs.
Financing will be crucial if actions are to be implemented by water utilities to improve
their systems security. Water utility resources are aIreacly under severe financial
restraint, particularly small systems, which have limited financial resources. Typical
projects responsive to this fourth need are:
Assessment of costs and benefits associated with various security
countermeasures, including dual-use benefits. This should include the EPA
taking a public position on the value of improved water system security.
2. Research on various rate structures that utilities are using or might be able to use,
to finance the costs associated with improved water system security.
3. Development of a manual or other communication vehicle that water utilities can
use to assist in increasing the awareness of the public, customers, rate regulators,
ant! elected and appointed officials regarding the value of water, increased water
security, and the increased rate structure necessary to create the financial
resources for implementing improved water security measures.
These projects should be given high priority and initiated soon, since it will take time to
put in place rate structures that will generate required financial resources. Projects #2
and #3 should be initiated immediately, and project #1 should be conducted concurrently
with projects 3. l.c. 1-4, which will identify countermeasures for drinking-water
protection.
Summary
The projects identified to support the protection of physical and cyber infrastructure
are appropriate to address the needs identified in the Action Plan, but some revisions are
suggested. Overall, the projects identified to support consequence analysis (3.1.b) need
additional refinement to clarify their contribution to the current state of knowledge and
project 3. l.b. 1 should follow the higher priority projects such as 3. l.a. Refinement of the
vulnerability assessment methodologies (~3.1.a.4) should be compressed and postponed
until the end of the Action Plan life span so that information resulting from other projects
can be incorporated in this analysis. Additional projects were proposed in support of a
OCR for page 71
Review of Projects Identified in the Action Plan
71
fourth need to assess the costs and benefits of countermeasures. These additional projects
are of high priority and should be initiated as soon as possible and sequenced
appropriately with the identification of countermeasures.
........................................................
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
, j .
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: _' * ^~' :) I::: .~:~= ~~ :::: .~ :::~:::.~ ~ I::: .~ AT ~ :~= ~ Id . - ^
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: , :: : : Aft. . ;i':::i::. ~:~:~ ~" ;::" $~ ;:::: ~ All::: l~ :: BO~ ::~ . .
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::~::::::::::
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::: :::::::::: ::: ::::::::::: :::::::::::: :: :::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::
~11 hat ~ ~~ ~ w~ ~ d ......... ..~ ~ ~.~
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::....::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
....... ::::::::::: :.::: ::::: ::::: ~ :::::::.:.:::::::: ::::::: :::::1::::: ::::: :::::::::::::: ::
~ ne n~g scheme ~s consl~ w~n low ~~u lo ~~e ~~n elm come mans anu
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::: :: ::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::: :: 1:: A:: A::: : : :: ~ ::: ~ 1 : :: : ::: :: :: :: 1: :: :: : ::: ::: :: :: : A: ::
3~.~S ~ IDOL OCC~ WOfO $~ ~ tDO p8~t ~ HtSt tOpOU tSOO ~~U ~
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::a::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
.:.:.:.:.:.:.:~:.:.:.~.:.:.:.:.:::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:~:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.::~.:.:::.:.:~:.:.:::.:.:.:~.:.::::
............. ~ ~ ~ ppoalea la~lIleanon ens p~.~.~allon of p~sleal ~ *eels lo urm~ng Wamr
.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:::.:.:.:.:.:.:::::.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::: ::::::::::: :::::
:::::::~:::::~:::::::::::~::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::~:::::::::~:::::::~:~:::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::
~ras~ruc~r~ mclualng an lmurovea unaers~anamg of One ~ulneran~ oT per psalms to
.:.:.:.:.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::...:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.... ::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::
:::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::
. ~r thrifts and ~ ~
.... ~ . 4 . ~.~ ~ ~ ~ = . ~ w ~ - .~ ~ Am ~ ..
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::: :: ::::::::::: :: ::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::: ::::: :::::::::: :::::::: :::::::
~ ^ ~ ~ phi
::::::::::::::::::::~::~::::::::: -.-. — ~ ~ d;
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::..::::::...::::::::::::::::::::::::::
.................. ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: d::: d
tI.~u .~..~m ~ ~11 ot .~.~.~.~1t ~ .~..~. [~ t! ~ u~ ~/ u~}
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::....::::::::::::::::::::::...::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::-:::::::d :::::::::::1:::::::::::::::::::: ~ ~
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~: X::~:::~:~:~::~T^~:~^n~ d^~::::~:~:*:~:X:~::::::*:lE:t:~:~::t::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::l:~:~::=l:~:~lil~:~::~wUllL~:l~l:~:~:~1~: :::*::—:*:~:~::}:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::: :::: :: :::::::
:::::: A::::::::::: :~::::: :1::::: : :. ` b . ~ l 1 b id. d ~ . . .
. ~ d ~~ OI VU1~8 O111~ RS SOS smem ~~e ~ cn e~ us
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::...:::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::: :::: :::: ::: :: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~::~.~:~::::~::*.~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~::: - rx:~_::r:*:t::~::~:~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
~ I ~ !::: :...~. /:: ~ d ~ ............
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::..::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::..::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::: ::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::: j::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::: :::: ::::::::::::
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ t~! ~ £~ ~ ~ ~ X I~ $ $ ~
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
~ t ~ ~ ~ ! b t ! ~ t
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.~ ~ l'X l t 1~. 7 :r :l : +: : : : :~: : :~: : a - . :x : `: : : : a:
I I t ~ t t l ~ X l i l Y.. ~ V ~J I t t <.~ t l { l I I } B l } t l ~ l t t t / l i l t ~ / l l ~ Y I~t
: := : : : :: :: : d ~w~ d
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
: : : : : : :: : : :: : : : : : : :: : : : : : : : : : : :: : : : : : : :: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :: : : : : : : : : : : : ::: : : : : : : : : : : :: : ::: : : : : : : : : : : :
31b Ath gh d ~ d. g dd t ~ t~ ~ ~ ~
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :
ReviewofProjec ...................... .......... .......... ....
.............. ~.~ ~ ~ th d ~
::::::::::..:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::....:::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::: :::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::: ::::: :::::::::::::::::::: ::::: :::::::::: ::: :::::::::::::::::::::
comom~lona~ moae~s ano aem~on selence
::::::::.::..:::::::::~.::.::::::::::::::::..::::::::::::::::::::::..::...::..:::..:::::::::::::...::::..::..::..:::..:::::.:
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
~ . . :::: :X:::::::::::::::::::::: :.
~ ~al=Ilon ~ Oemon$~n ol co~1~l mooe~s ~ uec~$~n se~e mo~ls lo
::::::::::::::::::::::: ':::::::::::::::: .:::::::: . . .:::::::::: . .:::::::::::::::: . . .::: . . .:: .::::::::: . .:::::: .::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::t::t::::::::::::::::i 1:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::7 ::
8~7 $ =C C=~$ OI D~$~£81 ~ C70~E =~ OH ~ 1~$~£~ W1~
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~::: :::: :::: :: :::: ::::::: :::::::$ ::::::: ::::: :::: :::::::: :::::: :::: ::: :: ::::::: ::
J.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:::::::::::: ::: :: :::::: ::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~: :~::t::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~: :~:t:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.::.:::::.::f:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::i ::::::::::::::.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::: :: :~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :': : : : : : : : : : : : *: : : : : `: : : :~::: t~ : : : : : : : : : : : :~:: ~ :r : : :1: : : : x: : : :rx : : 0.: : 1 : : T : :~:~: : : : : : ": :7: : : :
~ - ~1.~.~. ~ w' ~ ~1~1~O w! ~1~ Of ~1 "1l' ~'Q~1 "~"X ~ 1~1 ~. 1 ~1~1~.~O ~11 L1~
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::..::::
::::::::::::::: ::1:': ::::::: ::::::: :::: : : : ....... ...
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:~:~:~:~:~.::~:::^ T ::~X~::~.7 :::f ~:::~:~^ b.~:t:l:::~:~:T.^ b..~.~.:F~ T t ~:::X~T^:~:F::::~:::I
.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:~:~:~:1 e:: ~ U :~: :w l:: ~:: ~ L1~:: wIl: :w :~: ~:~:~:: :~: ~ L~:: :O :~:
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::~:~:q:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
~ ^~$mem o~ me c~s o~ ~ ?~ ?~ ~[ i0$5 0~ 0~[
................ ? ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :~.:: :::: ::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::
........................................................................ ....... .~
::::::::: ——. ~ ~ d; b
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::..:::
................................................................................................. ~
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: d::::::::::~::::::::~:::::::::::::~::::::::::~:::::::::::: :~:::::::::::::: ::::::: ::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :~ :r: :1::::: t:: i~ ::~" . : +7 ::~: :::~: .t: t : :: i :~: ::: i `.: : :::::f:~:{t:x: i:::~:*l:i%::~::::::::::
I ~ ~ ~ V ~^ I ~ i t ~ t t ~ t X ~ i V l J ~ i l l l X X ~ ~ I ~^ I X J } I I I I I ~ I I t Y. W t t ~ t l~ V
.................. ¢. ~_~ w. _ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ : : .::: :: : . . ~ ...
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::: :: :::::::::::::::: :::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
~ ~ ~ ~ m.~ ~ th ~ ~ (P~ ~
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
ReviewofProjectsIdentif ................................................
a ~a ~ ~ t ~ n ~¢ g d d g t t ~ t d
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::: ::: : :: :::::::::: ::::::::: :::::::: ::::::::::::::::J::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::: - r.~:~:~:~:~::~:::~ff~::~::_~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::Y:"l"~l:~"l~l~::~{::~ll~::lU}lH:::~l::l" ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::.:: :: ::::: : : : :: ::::::::.:::::: ::: : ::::::~::: : : :::: :.::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::: :t::: :,: :b.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.: b
........................... a~ re
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::: :::::: :::: ::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::: ::::::: ::: ::::: ::::: ::::::::::::::::: ::::: ::::: :::::::: ::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::: ::: :::::::::::: :::::::
::::::::::::::::::::: ::::.:.:.:.: .:.:. :.: b :: b:::: ::: :::::::::~ :b:::: ::: d :::::::: :::: ::~
~n a P~1 l ~1 . ~ r l ~ ~^m r~ t x a . l ~ n \~7 l x ~ t ^^ .~. .~O ~ ~ ^ n ~ . t * t . ~ x ~ * t x~ x
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~..:~.::~..:~.:~:~:::~.:: - fA.~:~. .~:::~:A. .~.~:: f f - ~:~ fA.~: :::::~:~: f~ :~:~*:~ f}::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
d d b
~ S~ ~ ~ ~ t...~.... tsC~ ~ ~ ...~...........................
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~: ::, :::~:::::_: ::d :: :i :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::t::: f :*l:i~:::::1:':` :f:E:t^::~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
I ~ t I_— X ~ ~ t lt ~ ~
V ~ ~ - > r ~ ~ ~ ::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
t::::::: :~ r r :::::::::::::::: - :::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::
............... ~ ~ ~ ~ F8~} 00~ $~S 1~t COU1D OC uS C~ ~ ~ 1n ~ n ~ ~ ? ~11~
.......................... ? :.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.: :.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.: :.:.:.::::: :.:::::: ~.::::: :~:: : ::: :.::::::::: : : :
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: : :: :
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::,::::::::::::::q::::::?:::::::~::::::::::i: t:::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::::: ':i::?:::::::
~ mInl~e T=~$ ~ ~18~C ~ £~$~S oI ~1
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::: ::::: ::::: ::::: :::: ::::::::: ::::: ::::~::::::::::: ::::: ::::::: :::::::::::: ::: :::::::: :1:::::::: ::
............ ~e .~ ~u meov~ pl~S (e ~ ~ ~ m ~$ *~s o~
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::..:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::..::::..::::::::::::::
b d d
......................... ~ ~ . ~ ~
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :b: : : : :d: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :b:~: :d: : b : : : : : : : : : : : : :
~ .t I ~ ~ `.' l ~ 7 ~ ~ q X~ ~ :~ /i t x l ~ ' li
11~1 1~1O "L ~l U IlILl~ ~1 - ~ ~ L~ ItI~Q Y ~ O~Ulil' d \~l ~= )~] ~d ~
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
........................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
OCR for page 72
72
A Review of the EPA Water Security Action Plan
Contaminant Identification (Section 3.2)
As the scope of available pathogens and hazardous chemicals expands, so should our
assessment of the threats and consequences they pose to water security. Knowledge of
critical contaminant properties, such as toxicity, environmental fate, and methods for
mitigation, will be needed to respond effectively to attacks on the country's water
supplies. The projects identified in the Action Plan are intended to address this need.
Project Evaluation
Overall, the projects that are proposed to identify the contaminants of concern and
the relevant threat scenarios (see Box 3-2) are appropriate to meet the needs outlined in
the Action Plan. The concerns discussed below relate to the project approach and the
time and resources available to complete some of the projects. Suggestions are offered to
streamline certain projects.
3.2.a Development of a List of Contaminants and Threat Scenarios. The project
to develop and prioritize contaminant threat scenarios (3.2.a.2) will contribute valuable
information to several other projects in the Action Plan (e.g., developing sampling
strategies, 3.3.c; evaluating treatment processes, 3.4.c) and therefore merits early
scheduling. In developing the list of threat scenarios, it is recommended that, where
possible, the threat scenarios be designed to handle categories of contaminants, rather
than designed for individual contaminants. This should streamline development of the
list and should simplify the development of responses to the threat scenarios. The
development of the list should take into consideration the point of entry to the system
(e.g., reservoir, treatment plant, distribution system, or welIhead) as well as the amount of
material that would be needed for the different types of contaminants to pose a threat.
The list of priority contaminants that may pose a threat to water utilities (project
3.2.a.1) should be linked to a well-defined set of relevant criteria (e.g., treatability,
solubility, human toxicity), which would be stored in the database mentioned below
(need 3.2.b). The development of this set of criteria is not a trivial effort. These data
could be used to group or prioritize the individual contaminants as users of the list deem
appropriate, although this prioritization process will be complex (see Part I for further
discussion of prioritization). Developing this set of criteria and establishing an initial
prioritization scheme based on these criteria will be essential components of project
3.2.a.1. The project related to developing an improved understanding of the role of
biologically produced toxins as drinking water contaminants (project 3.2.a.3) is deserving
of a substantial effort because this is an area in which a great deal is unknown.
3.2.b Development of a Database on the Critical Contaminants. In developing
the contaminant database (project 3.2.b.1), the EPA should initially focus on the
minimum amount of information that would be needed to guide response activities.
Essential information necessary for determining an appropriate response may vary
according to the contaminant or contaminant group (e.g., treatability via chlorination is
important information to have for types of microorganisms). Grouping the contaminants
by type, where feasible, is suggested (1) to simplify the database, (2) to reduce the
number of data gaps to be filled, and (3) to provide a means for including data on a larger
number of relevant contaminants. Nevertheless, the benefits of grouping the
contaminants may ultimately depend on the number of contaminants to be included in the
database, and grouping would lead to greater uncertainty about the characteristics of
agents within the contaminant groups.
OCR for page 73
Review of Projects Identified in the Action Plan
73
As the database is developed and additional contaminant properties are considered
for inclusion in the database, it will be important to keep in mind how the end users of the
information will ultimately use the data. Building a comprehensive contaminant database
for the sake of completeness will not be a wise use of resources. For simplicity, this
project should be merged with project 3.4.c.S, which develops a treatment technology
database for contaminants in drinking water.
Critical information for the database should be sought first from existing sources,
including peer-reviewed and non-peer reviewed literature and even best professional
judgment where no data exist. Useful resources may include recent publications from the
U.S. Army Center for Health Promotion and Preventive Medicine (CHPPM, 2003a,b).
In designing research projects to fill the most important information gaps (project
3.2.b.3), efforts should be made to coordinate with on-going research projects, such as
those being conducted for contaminants on the Candidate Contaminant List. The time
frame (approximately 18 months) and resources identified for this project appear to be
insufficient to achieve its stated goal. Millions of dollars have been spent in dozens of
research laboratories on characterizing contaminants during the last several years; it is
unrealistic to expect that all of the identified gaps can be filled in with the available
resources within the specified time frame. The draft implementation plan recognizes that
this effort will need to be directed toward the most critical information gaps and projects
that will be most likely to yield results. The EPA will also need to coordinate their
efforts with other agencies currently funding research on specific contaminants to address
this research need.
The lower prioritization of project 3.2.b.4, which calls for a survey of background
concentrations of priority contaminants in source or treated waters, seems appropriate.
Considering the limited time and resources, this "survey" is assumed to represent a
literature search rather than the collection of new water quality data. Analysis of existing
data is most likely to shed light on only the well-known environmental contaminants
(e.g., pesticides, some pharmaceuticals). It is unlikely that a substantial number of
priority contaminants will have been measured with the necessary frequency, sensitivity,
and accuracy to permit a meaningful assessment of background levels. The EPA should
not invest in more exhaustive data collection at this time because adequate
characterization of background concentrations for a broad suite of contaminants would
require enormous resources (INFORM, Inc., 1995~. With anticipated future advances in
sampling devices and a better understanding of contaminant threat scenarios, a project to
sample background concentrations of priority contaminants could be developed later.
This would represent a long-term research goal that would need to be coordinated with
related contaminant monitoring projects in sections 3.3 and 3.4.
3.2.c Development of a Surrogate/Simulant Database. The terminology used here
merits additional explanation in the Action Plan, because the terms "simulant" and
"surrogate" may have different meanings in various fields. "Simulant" is commonly used
to describe non-pathogenic or non-toxic agents that can be used in experiments to study
the behavior of similar agents (NRC, 2003b, Layne et al, 2001), and it is assumed that
"surrogate" is used similarly here. Nevertheless, the term "surrogate" may add
confusion, because the term is also used to describe alternate measures of risk or
occurrence in actual samples in lieu of the target chemical or species (NRC, 1996~.
The language used in the Action Plan ("a comprehensive database... on surrogates or
simulates for priority contaminants" project 3.2.c.l) suggests an activity which is likely
beyond the means of the program given its time frame and other priorities, and thus
OCR for page 74
74
A Review of the EPA Water Security Action Plan
would not be a wise use of resources. Simulants may have limited applicability because
there can be significant inherent variability in the response of seemingly similar agents.
However, some field research might benefit from the use of a comparable non-pathogenic
organism to assess the possible response of a pathogenic organism (e.g., use of Bacillus
cereals spores vs. those from Bacillus anthracis). One end product should be a set of
guidelines or an operational handbook describing how simulants should be used,
including selection of the simulant, handling, analysis and data interpretation.
3.2.d Means for Maintaining and Transmitting Information on the Above. The
EPA has proposed a number of communication mechanisms for water security (EPA,
2003c), and work is ongoing to refine its information sharing strategy. The EPA should
consider additional methods to improve the accessibility of its databases. For a large
database, this may include developing several interface windows, which are appropriately
designed for different types of end users. Large utilities may be able to dedicate staff to
become trained in using the proposed databases, but it will not be feasible for many of the
mid-sized and smaller utilities to do so. Therefore, it may be more efficient to have
designated individuals at the state or regional level to serve as resources to those utilities
that do not have the in-house expertise. The system could be modeled after poison-
contro! hotlines, where individuals are highly trained to lead the caller through the
response steps, based on the characteristics of the event.
When making decisions about the classification of and access to information,
consideration must be riven to the costs and benefits of wideiv releasing the water
security information.
A, , A,
Overly restricting access to this information may unnecessarily
impede efforts to prepare for and respond to an attack as well as result in the loss of
valuable input from those who could provide improvements to the information.
Ultimately, the criteria used to decide who shall or shall not have access to the
information should be made available to the public. Essential water-security information
should also be made available to the appropriate users at no cost.
Summary
Overall, the prioritization and sequencing of the projects to meet the needs are all
considered appropriate, but recommendations are made to strengthen the projects and
focus the EPA on activities that will provide useful results in a timely manner. In the
development of the contaminant database, the EPA should identify the most relevant
criteria to be included and focus initial data gathering on the highest priority information
needed for response efforts. Where feasible, similar contaminants could be grouped into
categories, thereby minimizing the time and effort required to produce a useful database.
Information for the database should first be sought from existing sources, and the EPA
will need to coordinate with other agencies to fill the remaining critical information gaps
in a longer-term research effort. The scope of a simulant database should be narrowed to
better address the potential applications for this effort, and guidance should be developed
on the appropriate use of simulants. The EPA should also consider additional methods to
improve the accessibility of its databases and carefully evaluate current restrictions on
information access.
OCR for page 75
Review of Projects Identified in the Action Plan
75
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
......................................................................... .. .......... , . ~ . ~ .. a
............................. ah. ~ . ~ . . . ~ . .. . . .
.......................................................................... .~. .~.. . . i. . ~ n . ~ .~ ~ i. ~ ,
— ~ - ~ ~ — ~ ~ ~. ... ~ . ~ .
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::-:::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::::::::::::::::~::::~::::::::::~::::::::::::-:
~ ~~~ con - ~~ ~~ ^^ Y~1:~:~..~:t::::: :1~:::::~ Ye:::: :~:~::::~::::~:::::~::~:::::~:l Y^::::::::::~:^m^::::~: i:1:~:~:
:::::: :il Hi::: I hi A:::: :~:i:~:i:~:::: :iO::: :~ - I$~:i:O ~~::::: VY: I::::: ~~" A::: :::: :it`:::: Amp::: :~: hi::: :~:: I ~~ :::::::: - :}::: :~:i=~:~li O::
.:.:.:.:.:.:.:::::.::::::::::::::.:.:::.:::.:::::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::1:::::~::-:: ::':::::::::::::::::::::::::::::i::::::::::::::: ::t::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::1:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::
::::::::::::::~:~:~:l:$l:~::~:::::T^::::~i :~:~:~::::~:~:~:~::::~:::::~:l:~::~.:~:::::~:::::~i :~::::~:~:i:: ::::~::::::~1:~:T:::~:::::~:::~:~:::::~:~:::::::l::::Y:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
"~ - level'. ~ ~w ~.i~~~ I. ~~ ~i. ~ ~—I. 0 ~~ ~.i~` w.~..i~' ~ ~ I`~:~::~:~:~$:~::~::~` * ~:~::i:~::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~.:::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
d ~ ~ D1 i ~D ~ t D ~ t t ~t' ~ @
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::: ::::::::: ::::::: :::::: :: ::: :::::::: ::::j: ::::: ::::::: ::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::: :: : i: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::: ::::: ::::::::::: :: :b: ::::: :::::: i:::: :::::::: ::: j :::::::: :::::::::
:::::: :.t - Id:: :_~: :::::: ::::::: :~: :::: :: :~ .::: :?:_:: - :::: "~:~:: :~?~:~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::: :~:: ~V: :~:~:l :: :: ::: :~:: :V~::: Hi::.:: :~:l i:::::: :::::: ~:~"i:~.:~: Hi:::: :. :~:~.:"i~b::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:~::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
. . ... A. .. .... . ~ ::::: d :: :::::::~:: d:::::::: :_i:: :
:::::::::::::::::::::: :~::::::::::::: ~.~..~:~: :~.:: ^:: It ^~ T.: any::: l:i By: :~:: P:~:~:~:T~:: :~: :~ - a:: ^~ .~:~ - A: :~:~:~:a:~: :~::: :~ hit
:::::::::::::::::::::: :~:::::::::: :~:: l: ~~: Ill: :~:i: :~:: Al l:Y Ace: ::: :~ it: :~ll~l:i:ill"~:: :l: Add: ~ ~l:i:~"i:l~ll:i:"ll Y: :: :~::: :~:~ll~::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::: :::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
................................. i ~~ ~ ~
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::: : :::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::,::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::,:::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
. ~ ~ ~ I I id tip 0~ f I.
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::..::::....::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::f: :: ::ri :::: :::i ::i: ::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::Y I::: ink I'll i lulled ~ u - :1:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: : ::: : : : p:::~: : :: : :::: :.:: :::.:~::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::: 7 ................................
OCR for page 76
76
A Review of the EPA Water Security Action Plan
Contaminant Monitoring and Analysis (Section 3.3)
Reliable detection of contaminants is an important component of effective response
to chemical and biological attacks on water supplies. As the scope of available pathogens
and toxic chemicals expands, so must our abilities to detect their presence. Early
detection of an intrusion will be one defense to minimize widespread exposure. Aside
from obvious needs to define the extent of contamination, advise the public of the
contamination, and, if necessary, take actions to avoid exposure, detection methods and
associated protocols are essential for assessing performance of treatment and
decontamination efforts.
Project Evaluation
The research projects identified in the Action Plan were evaluated to assess whether
they could meet current water security needs related to contaminant identification. In
general, the proposed research projects are appropriate, although there are some concerns
related to individual projects that are described below. The panel's first report (Part I)
recommended several revisions to the research and technical support needs, but for
simplicity, the needs and projects as presented in the Action Plan (and their associated
numbering scheme; see Box 3-3) are used to organize the project-specif~c discussion
below.
3.3.a "Play Book" for Analytical Response. According to the draft
Implementation Plan, the preparation of a draft analytical response plan for addressing
threats to drinking water from chemical contaminants, including unknowns (projects
3.3.a.1 and 3.3.a.2), was scheduled to occur over a six-month period. Additional time
may be needed to develop a complete and thorough analytical response module and to
incorporate information that develops out of project 3.2.a.1, the identification of priority
contaminants. As recommended in Part I, a play book may also need to be tailored to
address the capabilities of small systems. The other projects identified to meet this need
(projects 3.3.a.3-6) appear to be appropriate and logically sequenced.
The development of response protocols (or modules, such as 3.3.a.1) is an essential
task but needs to be integrated with the other proposed drinking water response protocols
(3.3.a.2, 3.4.b.1, 3.4.~.1, 3.6.~.3) and coordinated with all the other parts of the Action
Plan that provide the data to inform the protocols. Project managers responsible for the
development of response protocols will need to communicate frequently and effectively
with staff from salient portions of the entire research agenda to allow integration and
updating as new data are generated. There must also be communication from those
involved with the protocol development to those running other projects, indicating where
important gaps are appearing as the protocols are examined, tested, and used by utilities
and agencies. Therefore, adequate and continuing resources and effective, stable project
management are especially important for this project to support the essential integrating
function of the response guidance.
3.3.b Improved Hardware and Analysis Methodologies. Concentration
techniques (project 3.3.b.1) are essential to the sampling and analysis of biological
components, and the development of concentration techniques should be closely
coordinated with projects on associated detection methodologies (3.3.b.3 and 3.3.b.5~.
The resources committed to developing these concentration techniques for priority
biological contaminants, however, may be insufficient to enable the EPA to achieve its
goals. It is also likely that this effort will require a longer period than the two years
OCR for page 77
Review of Projects Identified in the Action Plan
77
currently allotted. For example, the efforts to develop methods for a single contaminant,
Cryptosporidium, for the purposes of the Information Collection Rule lasted for more
than a year, involved several research laboratories, and cost more than a million dollars.
It may be more efficient to focus on groups of contaminants in this project, rather than on
individual contaminants.
Project 3.3.b.4, as described in the draft Implementation Plan, involves the
compilation of a list of existing protocols for microbiological contaminants. The length
of time allotted to this project (15 months) may be excessive, since the project simply
represents a thorough literature review. It should be noted that the Action Plan describes
3.3.b.4 as a different project the development of data quality objectives and other
analysis goals which should be added to the Implementation Plan under 3.3.c.
The sequencing of projects 3.3.b.5 and 3.3.b.6, which use the information obtained in
projects 3.3.b.1 through 3.3.b.4, is appropriate and logical. Specifically with respect to
project 3.3.b.5, which involves the development and application of new analytical
hardware and analytical methodologies for biological, chemical, and radiological
contaminants, it is doubtful that this can be accomplished within the 2.5-year time frame
allotted and with the available resources. A great deal of effort has been expended in this
area by the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) and others during the
past several years, involving hundreds of researchers and at least $100 million. It is
unreasonable to expect that the existing gaps can be filled in such a short time period with
less than $1 million, as suggested in the draft Implementation Plan, although the EPA
could make a valuable contribution by assessing recent and ongoing technological
developments in contaminant analysis and identifying gaps and long-term research needs.
3.3.c Requirements for Monitoring Technologies. According to the projects
3.3.c.1 and 3.3.c.2, as described in the draft Implementation Plan, EPA plans to ask the
water industry for their preferences in monitoring instruments and equipment, but this
seems to have the wrong focus. Instead, the EPA should define a series of performance
specifications for monitoring instruments and equipment. These specifications can then
be used by the manufacturers when developing products to meet the monitoring needs of
the industry. The EPA should not have the primary responsibility for surveying the
industry about their preferences in monitoring instruments and equipment, but the agency
could play a pivotal role in this process by bringing the water industry and manufacturers
together to discuss this issue.
There are some unique quality assurance and quality control (QA/QC), sampling, and
detection issues related to monitoring technologies that were noted in the panel's first
report (see Part I). Analytical quality assurance takes on special importance when
considering contaminants that can cause widespread illness or panic. There are a few
projects in the Action Plan that address some aspects of QA/QC (e.g., projects 3.3.b.4,
and 3.3.~1.2), but QA/QC considerations should be an explicit component of all projects
concerned with methods development and testing. For example, QA/QC measures need
to be explicitly included in the development of standard operating procedures for
evaluating monitoring techniques that will be done in project 3.3.~.2. Rates of false
positives and false negatives should be clearly understood for all relevant monitoring
. . . .. . . . .. . . .
tee nno ogles.
, . . . ~ ~ · . · ~
it should be noted that at least one component of project 3.3.f:5
(development ot performance criteria tor methods and infrastructure to assure the
adequacy of training of field and laboratory personnel) is also a QA/QC project.
The following projects should also be added to address gaps identified in the panel's
first report. First, a project should be developed to explicitly address sampling protocols
OCR for page 91
Review of Projects Identified in the Action Plan
91
3.6.b A Health Surveillance Network Associated with Contaminated Drinking
Water. A single project is proposed (3.6.b.1) that recognizes the importance of having
significant EPA participation as well as collaboration with the CDC and other federal
agencies in developing procedures for detecting an outbreak and investigating the
possible role of water. The project is appropriate and of high priority. The following
recommendations are made to assist the EPA in planning this project and implementing a
surveillance network (see also Part I).
In developing procedures for effective surveillance and investigation, it will be
important to collaborate with state and local agencies as well as other federal partners.
The identified project should describe the overall needs of a surveillance program, how
waterborne disease surveillance would fit into a larger surveillance program, and the
investigative response (e.g., who will take the lead for initiating action). Surveillance
activities should include procedures for monitoring outcomes of interest and coordinating
the response of a team of investigators (epidemiologists, physicians, microbiologists,
chemists, and engineers) if water is the suspected mode of transmission. In order to
confirm or deny the role of water as a route of transmission during an event, water quality
sampling and analysis will need to be paired with active disease surveillance data. The
effectiveness of current active disease surveillance systems at the local and state level
should be clearly understood, and public health surveillance during recent inadvertent
drinking water contamination events should be examined for lessons learned. There is
also an important communication component to this need (3.6.b) on many levels (e.g.,
among the investigators, with the public).
3.6.c A Methodology for Using Non-traditional Data Sources for the Derivation
of Toxicity Values Applied to Water. Methodology for estimating toxicity values
using Quantitative Structure Activity Relationships (QSAR) (project 3.6.c.2) already
exists for several health endpoints, and expertise exists in EPA to both apply existing
methodology and to develop new methodologies that might be desirable. These
predictive systems are far from perfect, but several methodologies are capable of
providing useful information in the absence of specific experimental data. Applying
LD50 data for risk assessment (project 3.6.c.1) presents more difficulties, and EPA should
defer to other agencies (e.g., the U.S. Army) that are already exploring this methodology,
assuming that an appropriate collaboration can be established.
3.6.d Frameworks for Assessing and Managing Risks. As noted in the panel's
first report (Part A, risk assessment and risk management should be integrated into
decision making during all stages of a water security event, from threat assessment to
event response. The projects identified in the Action Plan should support this objective.
However, considering the time constraints of the Action Plan, the 3.6.d projects should
represent a focused and applied effort that builds upon the existing knowledge base in
risk assessment and risk management (e.g., NRC, 1983; PCC, 1997; ILSI, 2000~.
Ultimately, the projects should generate an operating procedure for risk assessment and
risk management that is designed to apply specifically to the water security context. This
would naturally begin with a review of current approaches, but because many of these
approaches are conceptually similar, such a review should not take long. All three
projects identified here are essentially part of the same project, and they should be
combined and completed within one year, as they are high priority components of a water
security response protocol, along with the protocols or "play books" developed in 3.3.a.1-
2 and 3.4.~1.1.
OCR for page 92
92
A Review of the EPA Water Security Action Plan
3.6.e Methods and Means to Communicate Risks to Local Communities. The
panel's first report (Part I) noted that "developing an effective broad communication
strategy that meets the needs of a wide range of stakeholders, including response
organizations, water organizations and utilities, public health agencies, and the media,
should be among the highest priorities for the EPA." The Action Plan recognizes the
importance of risk communication within the risk analysis framework. However, the
project to develop a framework for risk assessment and risk communication (3.6.e.1) as
described in the draft Implementation Plan emphasizes developing tools.
communication tools provide mechanisms tor water managers to communicate with
stakeholders about a variety of issues, but they should not precede a thoughtful
communication strategy or minimize active two-way communication. Thus, EPA should
prioritize research that reviews and refines existing communication strategies and
explores how tools can be used more effectively, instead of only emphasizing tool
development. Tools without a process to support them will not provide the return on the
investment that EPA is making, nor will they help water mangers communicate
effectively. Projects 3.6.e.1-4 should focus on identifying the appropriate risk
communication planning process that will help water managers not only select tools but
also identify stakeholders, assess stakeholder needs, and determine how stakeholders
communicate within their network. These projects should be conducted in two phases.
The first phase of the project focuses on the selection and refinement of a risk
communication strategy for water security and consists of several steps. Many risk
communication resources exist that should first be consulted and evaluated (see for
example NRC, 2003a; USHHS, 2002; EPA, 2002; EPA, 20031; USFDA, 2002; ATSDR,
2001; Hance et al., 1988; Pflugh et al., 1992~. Information sharing strategies also have to
be considered, such as when to release information, who are the audiences, and how to
explain risk. If existing risk communication strategies do not meet the needs of water
security, the project could then tailor existing strategies as necessary. Once a strategy is
selected or adapted, it should be field-tested using an emergency simulation to determine
its effectiveness should a real emergency arise. It is not anticipated that Phase One
should take more than 1 ~ months to complete.
The second phase (projects 3.6.e.2-4) of the research should focus on developing,
testing, and distributing communication tools. Such tools might include written materials
(e.g., pamphlets, websites), an on-line database of water-related information, or a water
information hotline. Phase Two should only be initiated after careful testing and
evaluation of the communication planning strategy has been completed, because the
planning strategy will provide the basis for identifying and developing the tools proposed
in Phase Two. Tools should be developed with different scenarios in mind based on
several case examples, and field testing will be critical in order to determine the
behavioral response to a risk message. The tools should then be distributed through
existing networks being used by water managers.
Additional communication research is warranted relative to risk and the public's
response to risk messages in a water terrorism event. The following research topics
should be considered as additions to the projects identified in the Action Plan:
~ . . . . . ~
· Analyze when to release information versus when to withhold it due to security
concerns.
· Conduct a case study analysis of risk communication strategies and tools for past
disaster events.
OCR for page 93
Review of Projects Identified in the Action Plan
93
· Develop a national training program on water-related risk communication
planning and implementation for water managers.
· Analyze factors that build trust, reduce fear, and prevent panic to improve overall
communication strategies.
· Analyze methods to counter and reduce the possibility of misinformation or false
information being distributed to the public and key stakeholders.
A thorough assessment of the risks and benefits of widely releasing water security
information is critical to the development of a risk communication strategy, and the
decision of when to release or withhold information may influence the subsequent
selection of communication tools (see also the comments on section 5.2~. This project
should be conducted as soon as possible. The case study analysis should be conducted
concurrent to the selection and refinement of risk communication strategies (Phase One,
as proposed above) to incorporate lessons learned from prior emergency events. The
training program is a high priority effort, but it should be sequenced to incorporate the
knowledge developed in projects 3.6.e.1-4.
The final two proposed projects are also
important to the refinement of risk communication strategies and tools, but information
from these projects can be incorporated to improve the communication strategies and
tools over time.
summary
The projects identified to improve the understanding of contamination-related health
effects, develop or refine a risk management framework, and enhance risk
communication are essential for water security preparedness and response, and several
recommendations are made to enhance or expand on the projects proposed. The project
to generate an operating procedure for risk assessment and risk management for water
security is essential to decision making and should be accelerated and coordinated with
other response protocols in the Action Plan. Analyses of acute and chronic health effects
and quantitative assessments of potential exposure should build on existing knowledge in
order to provide guidance to utilities and responders as quickly as possible. A review of
predictive methodologies to assess toxicology values in absence of experimental data
should be accelerated to illuminate gaps where additional method development work is
needed and to clearly define the limitations of these methods. In the area of risk
communication, EPA should emphasize research that reviews and refines existing
communication strategies and explores how tools can be used more effectively, instead of
only emphasizing tool development. A two-phased effort is recommended to support the
needs of water security: first, selecting and refining a risk communication strategy, and
second, developing, testing, and distributing communication tools. Several additional
research projects are recommended that could improve risk communication activities.
Recommendations are also provided to assist the EPA in planning and implementing an
active disease surveillance network.
OCR for page 94
94
A Review of the EPA Water Security Action Plan
WASTEWATER
The wastewater section of the Action Plan is not as developed as the drinking water
section; therefore, the panel's comments in its first report (see Part I) were
correspondingly less detailed. The threats potentially posed by an attack on the
wastewater system are different in important ways from those posed by an attack on the
drinking water system. Protecting the wastewater systems against attack and precluding
the wastewater system from being used as an instrument for attacking other critical
infrastructure are both important and deserve attention.
Wastewater Infrastructure (Section 4.0)
Two general aspects need to be considered for protecting wastewater systems: (1) risks
from physical damage, and (2) risks to public health and environmental quality via
treatment plant disruption. Unlike much of the water supply infrastructure, wastewater
OCR for page 95
Review of Projects Identified in the Action Plan
95
collection systems can provide easy access to many physical structures, serving as a
potential conduit for malicious use; thus, physical damage by means of wastewater
collection systems may represent the greatest risk to people and infrastructure.
Wastewater treatment plants may also be disrupted by physical or some types of
contaminant attacks, resulting in reduced treatment performance. One consequence
would be the direct discharge of untreated or marginally treated sewage to receiving
waters until the plant can be reinstated, affecting downstream drinking water quality and
aquatic ecosystems. Because treatment plant disruptions have occasionally occurred,
there are techniques and practices already available to deal with temporary outages and
they represent less direct risks to human health than drinking water system
contamination. Storage of hazardous materials, such as chlorine gas, and disposal of
contaminated wastes and sludges represent additional security concerns specific to
wastewater systems. There are also some similarities between drinking water and
wastewater security needs, and research and technical projects should be carefully
planned so as not to duplicate ongoing work.
OCR for page 96
96
Project Evaluation
A Review of the EPA Water Security Action Plan
EPA is currently collaborating with the Water Environment Research Foundation for
additional input and will soon present revised plans for research and technical support in
the area of wastewater infrastructure. Because the projects proposed in the Action Plan
are likely to undergo substantial revision in this process, the panel focused its review on
those projects which are currently ongoing or slated to begin in 2003 (4.a.1-4; 4.b.1;
4.c.1-2; 4.e.1; see Box 3-7) . Generally, these early projects are appropriate to meet the
most pressing needs for wastewater, focusing primarily on threat assessment,
determination of countermeasures, and access control. However, project 4.c.2 (to assess
technologies to identify physical threats and contaminant introduction) should be delayed
until vulnerability assessments and threat assessments have been conducted for
wastewater infrastructure, so that the importance of contaminant detection for wastewater
security can be evaluated relative to other proposed projects. The project that evaluates
the linkages and interdependencies between drinking water and wastewater systems
(4.a.4) may provide important insight that will help EPA managers evaluate the relative
priority of additional wastewater security research. The significance of wastewater
contamination or sewage discharges on drinking water quality will depend upon stream
flow conditions, distance, time of travel, dilution, and the characteristics of the particular
agent all of which can be modeled. The Ohio River Monitoring and Notification
Network is an example of an existing system designed to detect sewage and chemical
spills in the river and provide rapid warnings to downstream water systems. EPA may
wish to examine examples of these types of networks to assess their capabilities and
applicability with regard to terrorism incidents. With regard to hazardous materials used
in wastewater plants (4.b), the wastewater industry could benefit from the knowledge and
experience of other industries (e.g., the paper and chemical industries) that are facing
similar security concerns.
The remaining projects were not reviewed since more detailed wastewater security
discussions and further project development are ongoing at EPA.
Additional Projects
Management and disposal of contaminated waste and sludges (including materials
generated in the course of a cleanup or response action) is an area where additional
research and technical support projects may be needed. There is considerable experience
with managing wastes from hazardous waste sites that may provide sufficient
background. As a first order of business, existing procedures should be assembled and
examined for adequacy in the context of a municipal waste contamination incident.
The adequacy of plant worker protection to prevent harm during potential water
security attacks should also be considered. However, since sewage is routinely laden
with pathogens and chemicals, current practices may be sufficiently protective.
OCR for page 97
Review of Projects Identified in the Action Plan
97
OCR for page 98
98
A Review of the EPA Water Security Action Plan
·::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :: ::: :
..... ~ Im d ~ i m ~ f. d in ~ h 1 i ~ ~ t~
..................................................................
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::: ::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::
. w ~ t t~d ~ th ~ h 1 i m ~ ~ h i 1 d b ~ t
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::: :::::::: :::: ::: :::: ::::::::: :::::::: ::::::::::::::: :::::::::::: : :::: ::::::::: :::::::
or c 1e.~ca Silo own ant ; rat ~ Mecca contaminants
............................... ................................................ ., .................... . ~ ' ......................... ................. ..........
it.
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
. ~
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::: :::::::~::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::~::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: j ~ : :: :; :~: :j: : i :: ~ :::: : i : : :::::f ::: : :: ~ : :+ i ::::i :~:: :: :: : f. :: ::::: : t i : :::::~:::: : : : :i:i : : ::::; : : :: : : :
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~::J:l:~:Li :~: :: t:ll:: :l:i:l" :J:~::ti t:tI: ti :1~: ::':: tt:~:: by:"' - ~~ ~:~:1:: ~t :' ~~:1i 1:J=::::i~:::V:~:~ll:~:, - ::::~:::i 1~ ~
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:~. :::::::::: :: ::::—. :::::::::::::::::::::::::: ~::::~:~::::::::::::: :::::::::::~.: ::: . . ::::::: ::::: :::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::: :::::: :::::::::: ::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:~; ~= ~:~::~:~r ::~:~:~::~:~:~::::::~:~:t:~: :~: i :r :: i ::~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
................................. ~ y ~ ;~ ~l~ "l' i ~. I'. ly, "~. ~ Y ~. ~ ti ::::~:'f:: :~: ~ :
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::
:::::::::::::::::::::: :: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :: :::::::::: ::::::: :::::::::::::::::::
~ ~ i ~ ~ t~ ~ ~l $ ~ $~ (i
........
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::j::_::::::::::: :i :::: ::::::::::::::: ::::::::::: :::::::
.... ~ $ ~ 0t ~ t~ ~ ~ - ~ ~ ~ ~ ...............................................
............................................................................................ ........... ... ................ .........
::::::::::::::::t: ::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::: ::: :::::::::::::: ::::::: :
...........................................................
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: : : : : : : :: :: : : : : :: ~:
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
:::::::::::::::::::::: :~::::::::::: ~::::: ::::::: ::-:::: ::: ::::::::::::: ::::::::: ::: ::::::: :~:::: ::: ::::::: :~: ::::: ::::::::::::: ::::::::::: ::::: - t: ::: ::::: ::::::::::::: :~: ::::: :::::
~ ~ ~.~ ew`~n ana ~n ~ m~n mon'~ =a s~ance
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: '::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::i ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
................................................................... -
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::~::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::: :::::::::::::
.......................................................................... ~. ~ ~ d . ~ ........... ~ [~ d ~
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :: ::J; :::; ::::; :: .; : : ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~::r:~:J:~:J:i ::::~:J:~{:J:~::I::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::}::~::~:~— I:~::t:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: \:: . .:: . .: .::: . .::: .:::: . .:: .:: . . .: . . :; ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::i ::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::
............................................ ~ ~. . . . t [ i . u ~ ~ . w. ~. . ~ D a ...... ~ ..... . a. ~
:::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::~:.~.:::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :':::::::::::: ~:::::::::: :~::::: ~ :~::::::::::: ~ y:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: y::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~.~::~::::~:~:~:~:/:~:~:~::::~i :::::~:~:7i ~:~:~::::~:T::::~:~:~i '~:/:~::~:~:i ~:~.i ~:I:~::::~:~r; :~:~:~:t:~:::::l:~::::~:~:; ~:~:,i ~:~:i ~.~::::~:1::1:~:~:~:
.......................... / ~ f ~ l ,,4 ~ ~ ~ ~f /~:: :~, ~: :~: V:=I ,~:=f I :F: :~:: ~:~ :~:~. =: =~: :~ ~
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::ff::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~.::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::: ::::: :::: ::::::::: :: :: ::::::: :: :: ::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: : ~: :::::::i :1:~:~:~::::~:i.~:~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
cii8 ~ f~:::::::I:~:I:`t:f:t"; :~:1:f~::/::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~::~:...:~.:.:.~.~:'::::::~:...:~::~.::'::::...~::Y:...:f :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::i ::::::::::::::,::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::: ::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::
............................................ ~ ~ .. t d ~ t ~ ~. t ~ ~ ~ m mw
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.::::::: ::::::::::: ::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
.................................... ~ f~ '~ ~ ~0 j~i ~ ~0 j[~, '~. &~ ~ ~f ~f ~t f~tt~ i &
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::...:..::.::...:.:...~::.:.:.~::..:.:::..:...:.:..:.:.:.:....:.:..::.:....:::.:.:.:...:.
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::t::::::::::i .:::::::::::::~::::
.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:~i~.~.:.: fi - ~.~::~::t~:~:~J:~::~::~ni^:~t11~:::i f^::~:~::~.~i:
.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:::::::::::::::::f:~l:::~:f: ii :~:f::~:::l:~:~:::~r::~:f .~:~::V:~::~:~:~:: i - ~:::~:~:~:t:::::l :~:~f::~:~: - ~:~:,
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::::: f :::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::: :::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::i ::::::::::::::::::::::::::i:::: t:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::t::::::~:::::::::::::::: ::~:i :::::::::::::::::: ::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::t::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::: i::::::, f^:~:~:~:::::f:~:~:f:~:~:~f:~:::::i fi ::::~:i :f:~:7~:)::~:::::~::~::::~:~:~):~:l:::::F:& '.~:~:::::~:::::~:~:~1i :F~:"f=~:~::::i fi :::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::~: :::::::::~:~. :::~f ::~: &; f f :::~ &~:~f:~: &~f ~:~:~::~f ~::~:~:~:~. ~:::~; ::~:~:~:&&~::~I:~::~::~:~:::~:~:~:~:~f ::.~.~ &::~f
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::::::::::::::::Y.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
OCR for page 99
Review of Projects Identified in the Action Plan
99
IMPLEMENTATION
Effective implementation of the Action Plan is an essential component for improving
water system security through enhanced research and technical support. Communication
and dissemination of the results of the Action Plan are among the most important aspects
of implementation. Implementation also involves continually assessing ongoing work
and emerging needs in the area of water security, building and sustaining collaborative
relationships with other water security researchers and organizations, determining and
articulating the roles and responsibilities of other organizations and federal agencies in
conducting the work identified in the Action Plan, and identifying and securing the
necessary funding to support the identified projects. An effective implementation plan
would also include a process and schedule for reviewing the water security effort as it
progresses, evaluating its impact, and reassessing its priorities.
Providing the Means to Implement the Action Plan (Section 5.0)
Eight projects have been identified in the draft Implementation Plan (EPA, 2003b),
expanding on the ideas presented in the Action Plan (see Box 3-~. Overall, the projects
that are proposed make valuable contributions to the implementation effort. However,
some projects or aspects of projects may be missing, as discussed in more detail below.
Project Eva1/~uation
5.1.a Collaborative Research and Technical Support. As noted in NRC (2003a),
building collaborative relationships with a broad array of knowledgeable researchers and
agency representatives to share existing knowledge, identify research and technical
support gaps, target resources to projects that can generate the most benefit, and
minimize duplication of effort is essential to the success of the Action Plan and should be
a high priority for the EPA. The formation of the Distribution System Research
Consortium is an important first step toward improving coordination and collaboration
among researchers in the water security arena. Currently, the consortium includes
representatives from the military (e.g., Edgewood Chemical Biological Center, the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers), AwwaRF, and several federal agencies (e.g., CDC, U.S.
Geological Survey, EPA). However, as currently comprised, the group represents only a
portion of the broad spectrum of those with expertise in this area. The group should be
expanded to include researchers, consultants, utilities, and national laboratories with
expertise in this area, as originally identified in the Action Plan. The EPA should also
continue to strengthen partnerships with organizations that have focused on deliberate
attacks on water systems for several years, such as the U.S. Army and international
experts. EPA managers have noted that developing research consortia is a new,
experimental effort, which may be expanded into other fields once the success of this first
project is evaluated. Additional topics and research fields that might also benefit from
improved collaboration in order to share findings and minimize duplicative research
include incident assessment/risk analysis; mitigation, treatment, and response; and
contaminant detection.
5.2.a Technology Advancement. Several projects were identified that involve
verification of emerging water-security technologies. The cost for the Environmental
Technology Verification (ETV) projects ($~.1 million) would consume over 30 percent
of the total estimated budget for the Action Plan (EPA, 2003b). Undoubtedly, there are
OCR for page 100
100
A Review of the EPA Water Security Action Plan
benefits to advancing key technologies and providing a structured verification process
that will assist utilities in evaluating the water security technologies available. However,
considering the enormous resources required, these technologies should be selected using
cost-benefit analyses. The verification process should focus on those technologies that
provide the greatest potential benefits considering the relative risks and factors affecting
their ultimate use, such as cost to utilities. For projects 5.2.a.2-3, ETV funds should be
awarded selectively to technologies that are broadly applicable to classes of
chemicals/microbes or that are specific to high-risk, likely threat agents. The
subsidization should be provided for essential devices that would not otherwise be tested
because they have very limited commercial potential.
5.3.a Information Sharing. Developing an effective broad communication strategy
that meets the needs of the wide range of stakeholders, including response organizations,
water organizations and utilities, public health agencies, and the media, while addressing
security concerns, should be among the highest priorities for the EPA. Results that
cannot be communicated, are not accessible, or are poorly conveyed so that they are
misunderstood are not useful. The EPA is currently struggling with many of these issues,
and a plan for water security research communication is under development.
The projects identified in the draft Implementation Plan are appropriately prioritized,
although some additional components and separate projects are suggested to strengthen
the effort. The project to develop example practices (5.3.a.1) is important, as it will
guide future communications efforts within EPA. Overall, the number and complexity of
databases should be minimized to improve the accessibility of the data to the target users,
and there are several cases where databases could be combined (e.g., the databases of
treatment technologies, 3.4.c.S, and the critical properties for priority contaminants,
3.2.b.1~. As noted with regard to section 3.2, in order to broaden the accessibility of the
information and because the database training requirements may be extensive and
unnecessary for all utilities, multiple communication strategies should be considered.
Small utilities should be given the option to call EPA (or designated state agencies)
directly and allow staff to search the databases on their behalf to answer immediate
questions.
A second project (5.3.a.2) addresses how to get the right information to the right
people at the right time, and this project should be among the highest priority efforts of
the entire Action Plan. In this project, EPA will need to identify who might use and need
the information being produced from the Action Plan and how will it be used, in order to
effectively target dissemination methods and products to the appropriate audience. The
draft concept paper on Water Security Information Sharing Strategy (EPA, 2003c) makes
a good initial assessment of this, recognizing the wide array of potential information
users and products. Several important issues, however, were not adequately addressed
and the following projects are recommended to fill in these gaps:
· Conduct an analysis of the consequences of various levels of information
security, including studies on the risks and benefits of widely transmitting water
security data. This study should incorporate case study analyses of similar
events, such as the anthrax attacks in 2001. (This project could be combined
with the project proposed in 3.6.e.)
· Assess the benefits and limitations of existing methods of dissemination (e.g.,
web pages, the Water Information Sharing and Analysis Center), including the
cost burden to the government and those who need the information, so that
managers can decide whether existing dissemination mechanisms are appropriate
OCR for page 101
Review of Projects Identified in the Action Plan
101
to the agency's communication needs. (This project should be coordinated with
projects in 3.2.c! and 3.6.e and database development projects, such as 3.2.b,
3.2.c, and 3.4.c.~.)
· Investigate means to utilize pertinent information from the community and
incorporate improved two-way communication into the EPA communication
strategy.
........................................................
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
P di th ~ ~ ~ pl tth ~ ~ P1 (S ~. 5 0)
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
r
~ ~ . .0 1~g tSTS ~ IC tOSO~ ~ 8~t ~O ~8 . 000~ H00t ~ =t . 889001~ I. $ ~ ~ SC. 16t
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
..... i i ~ . ~ ~.
~ su~~ ~" .em C~D By D[~$~( lC ~ ~ A mu eme~n r~=
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :~: :~: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ~ : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :~: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::: :::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::
~ ~ it ~ ~ ~ ~ ~l ~ PI
:::: . ~ $ ~ : ~:: :w - w in:: A:: w~ ~ ~ ~ ~ '' ~$ ~0 ~ ~~ w
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::....::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:::
:::::::~::~::::::::::::~::::~::::~::::::::::::::::i:~::::::::::~:::::::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::::::::~:::~::::::::~:::::::~:
~ ~ ~ ~ ^e' - brow Con an i i An sir
:::::::~:b~:::~:~:~::~:~:~::~::~:~:~::~:~::::~:~:~:~:::~:~:~Va::~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::: ::::::: :::::: ::: ::: ::::::::::: :::: :::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::: ::::: ::::::::::: ::::::: ::::::::: ::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ::: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : ::: : : : : : : : : : ::: ::: : : : : : : : : : ::: : : : : : :
:::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::::~::::::::::::::::::::,:::: .:.:.:.:.:.:.:.,:1:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.~:.~.:.:.:.:,::::d:1 j d ~ j
:::::::::::::::::::::::1:::::::::::::~1100~::~::~:::1::11~1:nl1~:^n:::~:~:rC~:~:::~:~:~:~.~:n:::f:::::^n:~1 l1~::::::l:~:~:E:t:~:::::::X:It:~:~::~::::
. :.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:~.:. :.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:.:~.:~:J:~:J~:.~:.:.~:: :~: :::::: :~ :Y: ~:~:~:~: :::::: :::: ::::: :': :'r: :~:~~1: ha: :l::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: ~ a: ::::: ::::::: ::::: ::::: :::::::: :::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::: :::::::::::: ::::::::::::: ::::::: ::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::: ::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::_:: ::::::::::: :::::::: :::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::: ::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::~:::.:r::~::::.:~:.~:~:~:~:~:::~::~+i :~:i ~~:~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
~ ~ a ~ ~H'11U1U~ ~~ - IL~I4'I~111
::::::: :~ ~ ~::: : : -.-.: :-.-.-.~J::: : ::.:: : : : : ::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~—:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
:::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::: : :: :::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :: ::::::::: ::::::: ::::::::::: :::::::::::::
~ tI ~ ~ SC~~ ~~ ~$~ ~~ O~H ~~ S=~ - tats jiUb]
.............................. - . ~
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::~:::::::::::~:~_::~::::::::::::,::::::::::::::::::::::::::::-: :::::::: ::::::::1:::::::::::i:::::::::::::::
....................... , . 1 all .. at d Gil '. A. 1 . . ~. ..~ .. ..
::::::::::::::::::::::~ ::::::::::~:~::::V:::::YY:~i:::.~l:I:~:Y::: ill .:~:~:~::Y:::~i~:~ ~::~::~1~:~:~:Ll$/~:::~11~:1:1~/~:~:~i~:::::~::~::l:t:~
::::::::::::::::::::::::::P:::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::: ::::::::::: :::::::: ::: .: ::::::::::::::~::::::::: :: ::::::::::::::::::: :::::: :::::::::: : ::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::: :~::::::::::: :: :~: ::::::::: ::: :::::: ::::: :::::::: ::::::: :::::: ::::::::::::: ::::::+ : ::::: ::::::: ::::::1 _ ::::::::: :::::::1: :::::: ::::::::::: :::::: ::::::: ::::: :~:::
. ~ , ~ ~ ~ W~P SC£~ tC
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :: : : : : : : : : : : : ::::::: ::::: : : : : : : :: : : : : :: : : : : : : : : : :: :: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :: : : : : : : : : : : : :
... ~ ~ its ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ $i~$ 0~ ~ ' $~0 ~
.........
d d
.. .... .. . ~ ~ : :: : : d: d ~ ~ ~ ^
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: :.~. ::.: - an. .:::: - :~: ::::: ~:~w A. .:. ~ ~ ~O ~~ - ~ V ~ ~ ~ * /
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::..:::::::::
P i i
d ~~d tor ~~v gems at the tess tna
:::::::::::::::::::::: :: :::::::::: : ~: : : :: : :::: :: : : : ~:~::: : :.::
—
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::i:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::.::t::~::::::::::::1::::::::::::::::::::::::,:::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~^ :r~:^ Pa Pat} TV.. ~l:~:~::::t::l:::it:l:~:::::l::::~:lt:l: ~
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~Y:~li - ~~:~:W:~:Y:~~ 5:flil - :li~ ::~::~:*:~ :~::~:~::~::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::~::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::_:: :::::::::::_::::: :::::::::::::::::::: :p :::::::::::: : :::::::::: :::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::~:::.~::: :::::~: _ : : :~_ : :::: : : ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
:::::::p p ~ ::ill IU1 E"~'l"~::~ll El:::ul":::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
::::::: :~ :* ~::.-.-.- -.- : -.-.-.-.:: : : ~:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
: : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : : :
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
d:::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::: j::::::::::::::::::::::: ::::::::::::: ::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
. ~ .~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ £ ~~
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::..::::::::::..::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::
_ ~ i _ _ ~ a ~ ~ ....
................ HI P ~ I t: : 1: : :~::::~: x: P.x~ r:::W: . x x ~ ~ ::::::1:~:7:E:l::~:::::::~:`
::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: I: ~:
Representative terms from entire chapter:
water security
