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Air Quality and Stationary Source Emission Control
CHAPTER 6
THE RELATIONSHIP OF SULFUR OXIDE EMISSIONS TO SULFUR DIOXIDE AND SULFATE AIR QUALITY
(Chapter 6 was written by John Trijonis under the general supervision of the committee, which reviewed the work at several stages and suggested modifications which have been incorporated. While every committee member has not necessarily read and agreed to every detailed statement contained within, the committee believes that the material is of sufficient merit and relevance to be included in this report.)
Sulfur oxide emissions from man-made sources consist primarily of sulfur dioxide. Both during emission and while in the atmosphere, gaseous sulfur dioxide can become oxidized to form sulfate (SO4)† particulate matter. The sulfate aerosol is mainly composed of sulfuric acid and corresponding salts such as ammonium sulfate. This chapter reviews the relationship between sulfur oxide emissions and ambient air quality levels for sulfur dioxide and SO4.
As illustrated in Figure 6–1, the relationship between sulfur oxide emissions and ambient air quality involves several complex processes. Atmospheric transport and diffusion control the dispersal of the emissions, while chemical oxidation processes lead to the formation of sulfate aerosol from gaseous sulfur dioxide. Removal processes of sulfur dioxide and particulate sulfate include deposition on plants, soil, and water bodies as well as washout by precipitation. The latter leads to further pollution problems associated with increased rainfall acidity.
†
Parts of this report were prepared by a computer-assisted text editing process for which the high-speed line printer does not yet provide subscripts or certain special symbols. Two conventions have been adopted as necessary throughout Parts One and Two: (a) for μ read u; (b) numerical subscripts in formulas are indicated by underscoring (e.g., SO4).
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FIGURE 6–1: Processes Involved in the Relationship of Sulfur Oxide Emissions To Air Quality
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The relationship between sulfur oxide emissions and air quality will be discussed below in five sections. Section 1 describes the nationwide SOx emission inventory; included are discussions of past trends and geographical features. Section 2 deals with sulfur dioxide air quality and its relationship to SOx emissions. Section 3 describes present ambient sulfate levels and examines the dependence of ambient sulfate formation on SOx emissions. In Section 4, recent trends in sulfur dioxide and SO4 air quality are analyzed, and comparisons are made to corresponding SOx emission trends. Finally, Section 5 gives an approximate forecast of the air quality impact to be expected from the substantial increases in SOx emissions that have been projected for electric power plants.
SULFUR OXIDE EMISSIONS
The principal natural source of atmospheric sulfur oxides is the oxidation of hydrogen sulfide or dimethyl sulfide gas which results from decaying vegetation (Kellogg et al. 1972, Lovelock et al. 1972). Over the oceans, significant sulfate is also emitted as part of sea spray. Presently, on a global basis, these natural occurrences of atmospheric sulfur compounds are estimated to be about one and one half times the emissions from anthropogenic (man-made) sources (Cavender et al. 1973, Kellogg 1972). However, in industrialized regions, the concentrated emissions from technological processes, in particular fossil fuel combustion, are much greater than natural contributions.
Data on the composition of SOx from combustion and other man-made sources indicate that about 98 percent of emitted SOx is sulfur dioxide. The remaining fraction of typical SOx emissions, about 1 to 2 percent, is sulfur trioxide and its derivatives. The main sulfur trioxide derivative in emission gases is sulfuric acid; metallic sulfates appear to be directly emitted only in trace amounts.
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Table 6–1 summarizes the 1972 inventory of man-made SOx emissions for the United States as well as for six selected air basins. On a national basis, more than 75 percent of SOx emissions result from coal and fuel oil combustion in stationary sources, and more than 50 percent of SOx emissions result from fuel combustion in electric power plants alone. Industrial process SOx emissions, mostly from the metallurgical, petroleum, chemical, and mineral industries, are also significant. On a national basis, other stationary sources and transportation sources are relatively minor contributors.
As indicated in Table 6–1, the relative importance of different SOx source types varies considerably from region to region. In the three eastern/midwestern air basins listed in Table 6–1, (Boston, Atlanta, and St. Louis), stationary fuel combustion is especially important, accounting for 83 to 97 percent of total SOx emissions in those areas. Industrial processes and transportation are relatively more significant in the three western air basins (Dallas-Ft. Worth, Denver, and Los Angeles), where they account for 50 to 67 percent of total SOx emissions.
Figure 6–2 presents the geographical distribution of estimated SOx emissions in the United States (EPA 1974). It is evident that these emissions are particularly concentrated in the northeast sector of the country, which accounts for about half the total SOx emissions in the United States.
The trends in the SOx emission inventory are summarized in Table 6–2. From 1960 to 1970 total SOx emissions in the United States increased by 45 percent; about seven eighths of this increase was due to an almost doubling of electric power plant emissions. The remaining portion of the increase basically resulted from growth in emissions from industrial process sources. Total emissions from all other sources have remained essentially constant.
This increase in total SOx emissions was accompanied by significant alterations in the spatial distribution of those emissions. The
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TABLE 6–1
Sulfur Oxide Emission Inventories for the United States and for Selected Air Quality Control Regions, (NEDS Data for 1972).
United States
Boston AQCR
Atlanta AQCR
St. Louis AQCR
Dallas/Ft. Worth AQCR
Denver AQCR
Los Angeles AQCR
Total Sulfur Oxide Emissions (Thousand tons/year)
32,000
332
94.7
1,234
17.3
33.5
238
Percentage of Sulfur Oxide Emissions by Source Category
Stationary Source Fuel Combustion
Electric Power Plants
54.3%
41.6%
70.8%
76.2%
3.0%
34.2%
16.8%
Industrial
15.3%
8.2%
5.6%
6.0%
5.0%
10.4%
14.6%
Commercial & Residential
7.1%
48.6%
5.7%
1.9%
19.8%
5.3%
18.8%
Industrial Processes
21.1%
0.5%
12.3%
15.3%
23.7%
40.7%
37.6%
Other Stationary Sources
0.2%
0.1%
0.5%
0.1%
5.3%
0.2%
1.6%
Transportation Sources
2.0%
1.0%
5.1%
0.5%
43.2%
9.2%
10.6%
Source: Reference ( )
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FIGURE 6–2: Nationwide Geographic Variation in SO2 Emission Density
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TABLE 6–2
Sulfur Oxide Emission Trends in the United States, 1960–1970
Source Category
United States Emissions, 1960 (1000 Tons/Year)
United States Emissions, 1970 (1000 Tons/Year)
% Change 1960 to 1970
Stationary Source Fuel Combustion
Electrical Power Plants
10,100
19,400
+92%
Industrial
4,800
4,890
+2%
Commercial and Residential
2,590
2,160
−17%
Industrial Processes
4,720
6,030
+28%
Other Stationary Sources
360
380
+6%
Transportation
675
984
+46%
TOTAL
23,300
33,900
+45%
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bulk of the increase occurred among sources which are located away from central-city areas and/or which emit pollutants through tall stacks. Further, the growth of ground-level sources tended to occur in a non-homogenous manner; the greatest growth occurred in suburban areas, leading to a spreading of emissions throughout metropolitan regions. Ground-level/central-city emissions appear to have actually been significantly reduced from 1960 to 1970. These changes in the spatial distribution of SOx emissions will be discussed in more detail in Section 4, which deals with ambient air quality trends for sulfur dioxide and sulfates.
With no further abatement programs, SOx emissions are expected to continue increasing in the future. The National Academy of Engineering has predicted a 66 percent national increase from 1970 to 1980 and a 135 percent national increase from 1970 to 1990 (National Academy of Engineering). These increases will again occur predominantly in the power plant category, where SOx emissions are expected to double from 1970 to 1980 and to triple from 1970 to 1990.
SULFUR DIOXIDE AIR QUALITY
Table 6–3 summarizes the present National Ambient Air Quality Standards for sulfur dioxide. Natural background sulfur dioxide levels are well below the air quality standards; measurements indicate that natural background sulfur dioxide concentrations are on the order of 0.5 to 4 ug/m3 (Georgii 1970, Cadle et al. 1968, Lodge and Pate 1968). In urban areas, man-made sources lead to sulfur dioxide concentrations which are considerably greater than background levels. In the early 1970’s, annual average sulfur dioxide concentrations in urban areas of the United States tended to range from 10 to 80 ug/m3 (EPA 1972). In 1970 and 1971, the average level among all urban National Air Surveillance Network (NASN) monitoring sites was about 25 ug/m3 (annual average), and only about 2 percent of measured annual averages at NASN urban sites exceeded the national primary
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TABLE 6–3
The National Ambient Air Quality Standards for Sulfur Dioxide
Averaging Time
Primary Standard
Secondary Standard
1 year
80 μg/m3
—
24 hours
365 μg/m3
—
3 hours
—
1300 μg/m3
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standard. At nonurban NASN monitoring sites, annual mean sulfur dioxide concentrations tend to be around 5 to 15 ug/m3, slightly above estimated natural background levels (EPA 1972).
Figure 6–3 provides an approximate contour map for typical annual average sulfur dioxide levels in urban areas of the United States for 1970–1971. It can be seen that urban sulfur dioxide concentrations are generally higher east of the Mississippi. From 1964 to 1968, the average sulfur dioxide concentration at all eastern urban sites was three times the average at all western urban sites (Altshuller 1973). Particularly high urban sulfur dioxide concentrations are found in the industrialized northeast section of the country. As was illustrated in Figure 6–2, the northeast sector has the greatest SOx emission density.
The Relationship Between Sulfur Dioxide Air Quality and Emission Levels
The relationship between sulfur dioxide air quality and SOx emissions is simple in one sense but complex in another. It is simple in that the ambient sulfur dioxide contribution from a single source tends to vary in direct proportion with the emissions from that source. Thus, for an area dominated by a single source, the linear rollback formula is usually appropriate for relating sulfur dioxide air quality to SOx emission levels. The simple linear rollback formula is also valid for relating ambient sulfur dioxide levels to total emissions from a group of sources, provided that the emissions from all the sources are reduced or increased in proportion to one another. Another, more exact way of stating this proviso is that the temporal and spatial distribution of emissions remain fixed.
In reality, spatial distributions of emissions are altered by relocation of emission sources, by non-homogeneous growth patterns, and by non-proportional emission changes for different types of sources. Herein lies the complexity. When spatial emission patterns change there is no guarantee that the linear
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FIGURE 6–3: Geographical Distribution of Typical Annual Urban Ambient Sulfur Dioxide Concentrations
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TABLE 6–5
The Hypothetical National SOx Emission Increase to be Evaluated Here
1970 Emissions (1000 tons/year)
1980 Emissions (1000 tons/year)
Power Plants
19,000
38,000 (+100%)
Other Sources
14,000
14,000
Total
33,000
52,000 (+58%)
TABLE 6–6
Urban SO2 Air Quality Projections
1970
1980
A. Power Plant SOx Emissions (tons/year)
19×106
38×106
B. Other SOx Emissions (tons/year)
14×106
14×106
Change
Factor: 0 Weighted Emissions (0 A+B)
14×106
14×106 (0%)
Factor: 1/5 Weighted Emissions (1/5 A+B)
17.8×106
21×106 (+21%)
Note that natural background SO2 concentrations are neglected in these SO2 air quality forecasts. This is reasonable since average natural background levels of SO2 are much smaller than average urban SO2 concentrations.
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are located outside contral-city areas. As noted earlier, these “distant” emissions tend to be less important to urban/ground-level air quality than emissions from urban/ground-level sources. The impact on urban air quality will be calculated here by assigning relative importance factors to power plant emissions compared to emissions from other sources.
TABLE 6–5. THE HYPOTHETICAL NATIONAL SOx EMISSION INCREASE TO BE EVALUATED HERE
1970 Emissions
1980 Emissions
Power Plants
19,000
38,000 (+100%)
Other Sources
14,000
14,000
Total
33,000
52,000 (+58%)
On a per ton basis, urban/tall stack SOx emissions are about 1/5 or 1/10 as important to urban/ground-level sulfur dioxide concentrations as are emissions from urban/ground-level sources, (see discussion in previous section). Also, on a per ton basis, rural SOx emissions are of essentially negligible importance to urban sulfur dioxide air quality as compared to urban SOx emissions. With these considerations in mind, it appears reasonable to assign a range of near 0 to 1/5 for the relative importance factor of power plant SOx emissions vs. other SOx emissions to urban/ground-level sulfur dioxide air quality. Using this range, the forecasted increase in national urban/ground-level sulfur dioxide concentrations from the projected increase in power plant SOx emissions would be expected to range from near 0% up to 20%. (See Table 6–6).
The relative importance of “distant” SOx emission sources as compared to urban/ground-level SOx sources to urban/ground-level sulfate depends a great deal on regional characteristics. For urban areas with substantial photochemical smog activity or with high concentrations of atmospheric catalysts (e.g., from metallurgical industries), local SOx
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sources are much more important to resulting local sulfate air quality on a per ton basis, than are distant SOx sources. In these urban areas, high local oxidation rates lead to considerable sulfate formation from local SOx emissions, and, the relative importance factor for distant emissions would be low (Finklea, personal conversation 1974). In the opposite situation, for urban areas with very low oxidation rates due to the absence of both photochemical activity and atmospheric catalysts, distant SOx sources can be of equal or greater importance to resulting sulfate air quality on a per ton basis than local SOx sources (Finklea, Personal Conversation 1974). In such cases, the relative importance factor for distant SOx emissions sources could reach (or exceed) one.
Recent EPA studies of trends in SOx emissions and sulfate air quality for different regions have shed some light on the issue of relative importance of distant vs. local sources to sulfate air quality (Finklea, personal conversation 1974). From the results of these studies, it would appear that the average nationwide relative importance factor for distant sources compared to local sources, on a per ton basis, lies between 1/4 and 1. It is assumed here that this range is appropriate in comparing power plant SOx emissions to SOx emissions from other sources. By accepting this range, by accounting for natural background sulfate concentrations, and by using a linear relationship of ambient sulfate concentrations, to SOx emissions, the forecasted increase in urban sul fate levels due to the projected doubling of power plant emissions would be +20 percent to +40 percent (See Table 6–7). As noted in Section 3, the increase in sulfate may be less than this due to nonlinearities in the relationship of sulfate to sulfur dioxide. To allow for uncertainty concerning the non-linear effect, the lower bound of the estimated urban sulfate increase should be reduced. A predicted urban sulfate increase in the range of 10 percent to 40 percent appears reasonable.
To summarize, we have examined the impact on urban sulfur dioxide and sulfate air quality to be expected from a hypothetical doubling of
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TABLE 6–7
Urban Sulfate Air Quality Projections
1970
1980
A. Power Plant SOx Emissions (tons/year)
19×106
38×106
B. Other SOx Emissions (tons/year
14×106
14×106
Change
Factor: 1/4 Weighted Emissions (1/4A+B)
18.75×106
23.5×106 (+25%)
Factor: 1 Weighted Emissions (1 A+B)
33×106
52×106 (+58%)
Average 1970 urban sulfate concentrations were 10 μg/m3, of which about 3 μg/m3 was natural background. The weighted emission changes calculated above apply only to man-made contributions. Thus, accounting for the natural background levels, the total sulfate changes would be
and
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power plant SOx emissions. Properly, such an analysis should be carried out on a region by region basis, using available models for sulfur dioxide and formulating simple quantitative models for sulfate. Because of time limitations, only a very approximate estimate of nationwide air quality changes is presented here. This estimate indicates that the expected increase in nationwide urban sulfur dioxide concentrations would be in the range of 0 percent to 20 percent, while the likely increase in nationwide urban sulfate concentrations would range from 10 percent to 40 percent.
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TABLE 6–8
NASN Nonurban Annual Arithmetic Mean Sulfate Concentrations μg/m3
CITY
SITE
STATE
'60
'61
'62
'63
'64
'65
'66
'67
'68
'69
'70
Wrangell-Petersburg Ed
001
Alaska
0.4
ab
Grand Canyon Nat Park
001
Arizona
1.9
2.2
2.8
0.9
1.7
8.3
2.9
a
Montgomery Co
001
Arkansas
3.8
3.6
3.9
7.1
5.4
a
Humboldt Co
001
California
3.7
2.3
2.4
3.0
4.9
3.3
Mesa Verde Nat Park
002
Colorado
1.8
3.2
abcd
Kent Co
001
Delaware
8.7
9.5
10.1
10.9
9.4
Hardee Co
001
Florida
3.9
5.6
Monroe Co
001
Florida
3.0
a
Butte Co
001
Idaho
2.4
0.7
1.1
2.0
2.1
ac
Monroe Co
001
Indiana
6.8
6.2
9.7
7.9
7.5
abcd
Parke Co
001
Indiana
9.2
8.0
7.9
5.5
6.9
8.6
13.5
Porter Co
001
Indiana
6.5
Porter Co
004
Indiana
7.8
Delaware Co
001
Iowa
7.3
5.3
abcd
Acadia Nat Park
001
Maine
6.6
5.4
6.2
5.8
4.9
7.0
abcd
Calvert Co
001
Maryland
7.9
11.6
8.0
8.0
14.1
9.8
a
Jackson Co
001
Mississippi
5.7
5.2
5.8
5.6
a
Shannon Co
001
Missouri
5.3
4.7
4.9
4.7
Shannon Co
002
Missouri
6.6
5.7
ab
Glacier Nat Park
001
Montana
0.9
3.4
1.4
1.3
1.4
1.7
a
Thomas Co
001
Nebraska
3.5
2.1
1.5
1.7
4.9
2.2
a
White Pine Co
001
Nevada
3.8
1.7
0.5
1.2
2.3
2.3
ac
Coos Co
001
New Hampshire
6.1
5.9
5.9
7.3
3.4
6.5
Rio Arriba Co
001
New Mexico
2.4
2.0
0.9
abcd
Jefferson Co
001
New York
6.0
10.0
6.5
7.3
10.0
9.1
9.4
a
Cape Fatteras Nat Park
001
North Carolina
9.2
8.4
6.6
9.4
8.1
11.9
a
Cherokee Co
001
Oklahoma
4.3
4.8
4.4
3.4
5.6
9.9
a
Curry Co
001
Oregon
3.8
3.6
2.6
3.8
2.8
4.8
ac
Clarion Co
001
Pennsylvania
9.0
7.5
9.7
9.8
9.1
12.4
abcd
Washington Co
001
Rhode Island
7.1
12.6
10.1
10.5
Washington Co
002
Rhode Island
9.1
7.7
a
Richland Co
001
South Carolina
5.4
4.1
7.4
7.8
a
Black Hills Nat Park
001
South Dakota
2.2
2.2
1.4
0.9
1.9
Cumberland Co
001
Tennessee
6.8
8.7
a
Matagorda Co
001
Texas
3.7
3.6
4.4
3.8
9.8
6.5
Tom Green Co
001
Texas
ac
Orange Co
001
Vermont
6.2
5.9
8.3
7.5
5.8
8.0
abcd
Shennandoah Nat Park
001
Virginia
8.3
6.1
5.7
6.2
8.1
13.3
9.2
Wythe Co
001
Virginia
7.6
8.7
King Co
002
Washington
2.6
Door Co
001
Wisconsin
4.0
a
Yellowstone Nat Park
001
Wyoming
1.7
1.8
1.0
1.5
2.6
a. Included in 27 sites for nationwide trends for 1965–1970.
b. Included 9 sites for nationwide trends for 1962–1970.
c. Included in 11 sites for northeastern trends for 1965–1970.
d. Included in 7 sites for northeastern trends for 1962–1970.
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LITERATURE CITED
Altshuller, A.P. (1973) Atmospheric Sulfur Dioxide and Sulfate, Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 7, p. 709.
Altshuller, A.P. (1974) Director of the EPA Chemistry and Physics Laboroatory. Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, personal communication, November.
Appel, B. (1974) Sulfate and Nitrate Chemistry in Photochemical Smog, presentations before the Division of Environmental Chemistry, American Chemical Society, Los Angeles, April.
Bolin, B., G.Aspling, and C.Persson (1974) Residence Time of Atmospheric Pollutants as Dependent on Source Characteristics, Atmospheric Diffusion Processes, and Sink Mechanisms, Tellus, Vol. XXVI, p. 195.
Bufalini, M. (1971) Oxidation of Sulfur Dioxide in Polluted Atmospheres—A Review, Environmental Science and Technology, Vol 5, August.
Cadle, R.D., W.H.Fischer, E.R.Frank, and J.P. Lodge, Jr. (1968) Particulates in the Antarctic Atmosphere, J. Atmos. Sci., Vol. 25, p. 100.
Cavender, J.H., D.S.Kircher, and A.J.Hoffman (1973) Nationwide Air Pollutant Emission Trends 1940–1970, Office of Air and Water Programs, Environmental Protection Agency, Publication No. AP-115, January.
Cox, R.A. and S.A.Penkett (1972) Aerosol Formations from Sulfur Dioxide in the Presence of Ozone and Olefinic Hydrocarbons, Journal of the Chemical Society, Faraday Transactions 1, Vol. 68, p. 1735.
Finklea, John (1974) Director of National Environmental Research Center, personal conversation, December.
Frank, Neil H. (1974a) Temporal and Spatial Relationships of Sulfates, Total Suspended Particulates, and Sulfur Dioxide, presented at the 67th Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, Denver, Colorado, June 9–13.
Frank, Neil H. (1974b) Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, U.S. Environmental
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Air Quality and Stationary Source Emission Control
Protection Agency, Research Triangle Park, North Carolina, personal communication. December.
Georgii, H.W. (1970) Contribution to the Atmosphere Sulfur Budget, Journal of Geophys. Res., Vol. 75, p. 2365.
Gerhard, E.R. and E.F.Johnstone (1955) Photochemical Oxidation of Sulfur Dioxide in Air, Ind. Eng. Chem., Vol 47, May.
Gifford, Frank (1975) National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, personal communication, February.
Golden, J. and T.R.Morgan (1971) Sulfur Dioxide Emissions from Power Plants: Their Effect on Air Quality, Science, Vol. 171, January 29, p. 381.
Hidy, G.M. P.K.Mueller et. al. (1973) Observations of Aerosols over Southern California Coastal Waters, submitted to Journal of Applied Meteorology, May.
Holzworth, G.C. (1959) Atmospheric Contamiation at Remote California Sites, J. Meteorol. Vol. 16, February.
Junge, C.E. (1963) Air Chemistry and Radioactivity, Academic Press, New York.
Junge, C.E. and T.Ryan (1958) Study of Sulfur Dioxide Oxidation in Solution and Its Role in Atmospheric Chemistry, Quart. J. Roy. Meteorol. Soc., Vol. 84, January.
Junge, C.E., E.Robinson, and F.L.Ludwig (1969) A Study of Aerosols in Pacific Air Masses, J. Appl. Meteor. Vol. 8, p. 340.
Kellogg, W.W., R.D.Cadle, E.R.Allen, A.L. Lazrus, and E.A.Martell (1972) The Sulfur Cycle, Science, Vol. 175, February 11, p. 587.
Lodge, J.P., Jr. and J.B.Pate (1966) Atmospheric Gases and Particulates in Panama, Science, Vol. 153, p. 408.
Lovelock, J.E., R.J.Maggs, and R.A.Rasmussen, (1972) Atmospheric Dimethyl Sulfide and the Natural Sulfur Cycle, Nature, Vol. 237, June 23, p. 452.
MacPhee, R.D. and M.W.Wadley (19) Airborne Particulate Matter in the Los Angeles Region, Reports for 1965–1972, Los Angeles County Air Pollution Control District Technical Services Division Reports.
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Mills, M.T. (1974) Proposed Sulfate Modeling Effort, A Discussion Document Prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency under Contract No. 68–02–1337, GCA Corporation, Bedford, Massachusetts, October.
National Academy of Engineering (19) Abatement of Sulfur Oxide Emissions from Stationary Combustion Sources, COPAC-2.
National Academy of Sciences (1974) Air Quality and Automobile Emissions Control: Volume 3, The Relationship of Emissions to Ambient Air Quality, Serial No. 93–24, September.
National Air Pollution Control Administration (1970) Impact of Source Types on Sulfur Dioxide Air Quality—Urban and Rural, Internal Draft Report, Division of Meteorology, April.
Randerson, D. (1970) A Numerical Experiment in Simulating Transport of Sulfur Dioxide Through the Atmosphere, Atmospheric Environment, Vol. 4, p. 615.
Renzetti, N.A. and G.J.Doyle (1960) Photochemical Aerosol Formation in Sulfur Dioxide-Hydrocarbon Systems, International Journal of Air Pollution, Vol. 2, June.
Roberts, J.J., J.E.Norco, A.S.Kennedy, and E.J.Kroke (19) A Model for Simulation of Air Pollution Transients, 2nd International Clean Air Congress, p. 1161.
Roberts, Paul (1974) Graduate Student in Environmental Health Engineering, California Institute of Technology, personal communication, June.
Shir, C.C. and L.J.Shigh (1974) A Generalized Urban Air Pollution Model and Its Application to the Study of Sulfur Dioxide Distributions in the St. Louis Metropolitan Area, Journal of Applied Meteorology.
Smith, B.M., J.Wagman, and B.R.Foh (1969) Interaction of Airborne Particles with Gases, Environmental Science and Technology, vol. 3.
Trijonis, J., G.Richard, K.Crawford, and R.Tan (1974) A Particulate Implementation Plan for the Metropolitan Los Angeles Region, Final Report-Preliminary Draft, prepared for the Environmental Protection Agency, Contract No. 68–02–1384, October.
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U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare (1970) Air Quality Criteria for Sulfur Oxides, Publication No. AP-50, April.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1971) Air Quality Data for 1967, Division of Atmospheric Surveillance, Publication No. APTD 69–22, August.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1972) Air Quality Data for Sulfur Dioxide, 1969, 1970, and 1971, Office of Air Programs, Publication No. APTD-1354, November. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1972) Air Quality Data for 1968, Division of Atmospheric Surveillance, Publication No. APTD-0978, August.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1973) Summary Report on Suspended Sulfates and Sulfuric Acid, Preliminary Draft Report, October.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1973) National Air Quality Levels and Trends in Total Suspended Particulates and Sulfur Dioxide Determined by Data in the National Air Surveillance Network, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, April.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1973) The National Air Monitoring Program: Air Quality and Emission Trends Annual Report, Volume I, Office of Air Quality Planning and Standards, Publication No. EPA-450/1–73–001a, August.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1974) Briefing Notes—A Status Report on Sulfur Oxides, Preliminary Draft Report, Office of Research and Development, April.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (1974) 1972 National Emissions Report, Monitoring and Data Analysis Division, June.
Urone, P., H.Lutsep, C.M.Nozes, and J.F.Parcher (1968) Static Studies of Sulfur Dioxide Reactions in Air, Environmental Science and Technology, Vol. 2.
Wiedersum, G.C. and S.Barr (1973) The Effects of Power Plant Stack Emissions on the Ground Level Sulfur Dioxide Concentrations in an Urban Area, presented at the 66th Annual Meeting of the Air Pollution Control Association, Chicago, June 24–28.
OCR for page 275
Air Quality and Stationary Source Emission Control
Wilson, W.E., Jr. and A.Levy (1968) A Study of Sulfur Dioxide in Photochemical Smog, American Petroleum Institute, Project S-11, Batelle Memorial Institute.
Woodbury, H.G. (1972) Statement on the New York State Implementation Plan to Achieve Air Quality Standards for the Metropolitan New York Air Quality Control Region.
Representative terms from entire chapter:
sox emissions