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200 BIOCONFINEMENT OF GENETICALLY ENGINEERED ORGANISMS Allen, S. K., Jr., X. Guo, G. Burreson, and R. Mann. 1996. Heteroploid mosaics and reversion among triploid oysters, crassostrea gigas: Fact or artifact. Journal of Shellfish Research. 18:293. Alpeter, F., J. Xu, and S. Ahmed. 2000. Generation of large numbers of independently trans- formed fertile perennial ryegrass (Lolium prenne L.) plants of forage- and turf-type cultivars. Molecular Breeding 6:519-528. Alphey, L. 2002. Re-engineering the sterile insect technique. Insect Biochemical Molecular Biology 32(10):1243-1247. Alphey, L., and M. Andreasen. 2002. Dominant lethality and insect population control. Molecular and Biochemical Parasitology 121(2):173-178. Alvarez Morales, A. 2002. Transgenes in maize landraces in Oaxaca: Official report on the extent and implications. Pp. 78 in The 7th International Symposium on the Biosafety of Genetically Modified Organisms, Beijing, October 10-16. Anderson, E. 1949. Introgressive Hybridization. New York: Wiley. Apt, K. E., P. G. Kroth-Pancic, and A. Grossman. 1996. Stable nuclear transformation of the diatom Phaeodactylum triconutum. Molecular and General Genetics 252:572-579. Aquagene, 2003. Company homepage. Online. Available at www.aquagene.com. Accessed February 23, 2003. Arcand, F. 2003. Conference on plant-made pharmaceuticals, Quebec City, Quebec Canada, March 16-19. Available online at www.cpmp2003.org/pages/en/program/program.php. Accessed November 4, 2003. Arnold, M. L. 1997. Natural Hybridization and Evolution. New York: Oxford University Press. Arnold, M. L., and S. A. Hodges. 1995. Are natural hybrids fit or unfit relatives to their parents? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 10:67-71. Arriola, P. E., and N. C. Ellstrand. 1997. Fitness of interspecific hybrids in the genus Sorghum: Persistence of crop genes in wild populations. Ecological Applications 7:512-518. Asano, Y., and M. Ugaki. 1994. Transgenic plants of Agrostis alba obtained by electroporation- mediated direct gene transfer into protoplasts. Plant Cell Reports 13:243-246. Atkinson, R. G., R. Schroder, I. C. Hallett, D. Cohen, and E. R. MacRae. 2002. Over- expression of polygalacturonase in transgenic apple trees leads to a range of novel pheno- types involving changes in cell adhesion. Plant Physiology 129:122-133. Avri, A., and M. Edelman. 1991. Direct selection for paternal inheritance of chloroplasts in sexual crosses of Nicotiana. Molecular and General Genetics 225:273-277. Baeumlein, H., A. Meuller, J. Schiemann, D. Helbing, R. Manteuffel, and U. Wobus. 1987. A lugumin B gene of Vicia faba is expressed in developing seeds of transgenic tobacco. Biologisches-Zantrablatt 10695:569-575. Bahalla, P., I. Swoda, and M. Singh. 1999. Antisence-mediated silencing of a gene encoding a major ryegrass pollen allergen. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 96:11676-11680. Bakker, P. D., D. Glandorf, M. Viebahn, T. W. M. Ouivens, E. Smit, P. Leeflang, K. Wernars, L. S. Thomashow, J. E. Thomas-Oates, and L. C. van Loon. 2002. Effects of Pseudomonas putida modified to produce phenazine-1-carboxylic acid and 2,4-diacetylphloroglucinol on the microflora of field grown wheat. Antonie van Leuwenhoek 81:617-624. Baroux C., R. Blanvillain, I. R. Moore, and P. Gallois. 2001. Transactivation of BARNASE under the AtLTP1 promoter affects the basal pole of the embryo and shoot development of the adult plant in Arabidopsis. Plant Journal 28(5):503-515. Barrett, S. C. H. 1983. Crop mimicry in weeds. Economic Botany 37:255-282. Bartley, D. M., L. Garibaldi, and R. L. Welcomme. 1998. Database on introductions of aquatic species. Available online at www.fao.org/fi/statist/fisoft/dias/index.htm. Accessed July 1, 2001.

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Genetically engineered organisms (GEOs) have been under development for more than 20 years while GE crops have been grown commercially during the last decade. During this time, a number of questions have cropped up concerning the potential consequences that certain GEOs might have on natural or managed ecosystems and human health. Interest in developing methods to confine some GEOs and their transgenes to specifically designated release settings has increased and the success of these efforts could facilitate the continued growth and development of this technology.

Biological Confinement of Genetically Engineered Organisms examines biological methods that may be used with genetically engineered plants, animals, microbes, and fungi. Bioconfinement methods have been applied successfully to a few non-engineered organisms, but many promising techniques remain in the conceptual and experimental stages of development. This book reviews and evaluates these methods, discusses when and why to consider their use, and assesses how effectively they offer a significant reduction of the risks engineered organisms can present to the environment.

Interdisciplinary research to develop new confinement methods could find ways to minimize the potential for unintended effects on human health and the environment. Need for this type of research is clear and successful methods could prove helpful in promoting regulatory approval for commercialization of future genetically engineered organisms.

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