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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2005. Sensor Systems for Biological Agent Attacks: Protecting Buildings and Military Bases. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11207.
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Sensor Systems for Biological Agent Attacks: Protecting Buildings and Military Bases

Committee on Materials and Manufacturing Processes for Advanced Sensors

Board on Manufacturing and Engineering Design

Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences

NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
Washington, D.C. www.nap.edu

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2005. Sensor Systems for Biological Agent Attacks: Protecting Buildings and Military Bases. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11207.
×

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
500 FIFTH STREET, N.W. WASHINGTON, DC 20001

NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.

This study was supported by Contract No. DTRA01-00-C-0083 between the National Academy of Sciences and the Defense Threat Reduction Agency. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the agency that sponsored the report.

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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2005. Sensor Systems for Biological Agent Attacks: Protecting Buildings and Military Bases. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11207.
×

THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES

Advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering, and Medicine

The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences.

The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Wm. A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering.

The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine.

The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Wm. A. Wulf are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.

www.national-academies.org

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2005. Sensor Systems for Biological Agent Attacks: Protecting Buildings and Military Bases. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11207.
×

COMMITTEE ON MATERIALS AND MANUFACTURING PROCESSES FOR ADVANCED SENSORS

JOHN VITKO, JR.,

Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore, California,

Chair

DAVID R. FRANZ,

Midwest Research Institute, Frederick, Maryland,

Vice Chair

MARK ALPER,

University of California, Berkeley

PETER D.E. BIGGINS,

Dstl Chemical and Biological Sciences, Salisbury, United Kingdom

LARRY D. BRANDT,

Sandia National Laboratories, Livermore, California

CINDY BRUCKNER-LEA,

Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington

HARRIET A. BURGE,

Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts

RICHARD EDIGER,

PerkinElmer Analytical Instruments, Shelton, Connecticut

MARK A. HOLLIS,

Lincoln Laboratory, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Lexington

LEO L. LAUGHLIN,

Battelle, Arlington, Virginia

RAYMOND P. MARIELLA, JR.,

Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Livermore, California

ANDREW R. McFARLAND,

Texas A&M University, College Station

R. PAUL SCHAUDIES,

Science Applications International Corporation, McLean, Virginia

Staff

JULIUS CHANG, Staff Officer (until February 2002)

SHARON YEUNG DRESSEN, Staff Officer (until May 2002)

JUDITH ESTEP, Senior Project Assistant (until April 2002)

JAMES KILLIAN, Study Director

EMILY ANN MEYER, Research Associate (until April 2004)

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2005. Sensor Systems for Biological Agent Attacks: Protecting Buildings and Military Bases. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11207.
×

BOARD ON MANUFACTURING AND ENGINEERING DESIGN

PAMELA A. DREW,

Boeing Phantom Works, Seattle, Washington,

Chair

CAROL L.J. ADKINS,

Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, New Mexico

GREGORY AUNER,

Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan

THOMAS W. EAGAR,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge

ROBERT F. FONTANA, JR.,

Hitachi Global Storage Technologies, San Jose, California

PAUL B. GERMERAAD,

Aurigin Systems, Inc., Cupertino, California

RICHARD L. KEGG,

Milacron, Inc., Cincinnati, Ohio

PRADEEP L. KHOSLA,

Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania

JAY LEE,

University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee

DIANA LONG,

Robert C. Byrd Center for Flexible Manufacturing, South Charleston, West Virginia

JAMES MATTICE,

Universal Technology Corporation, Dayton, Ohio

MANISH MEHTA,

National Center for Manufacturing Sciences, Ann Arbor, Michigan

ANGELO M. NINIVAGGI, JR.,

Plexus Corporation, Nampa, Idaho

JAMES B. O'DWYER,

PPG Industries, Allison Park, Pennsylvania

HERSCHEL REESE,

Dow Corning Corporation, Midland, Michigan

HERMAN M. REININGA,

Rockwell Collins, Cedar Rapids, Iowa

LAWRENCE RHOADES,

Extrude Hone Corporation, Irwin, Pennsylvania

JAMES B. RICE, JR.,

Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge

ALFONSO VELOSA III,

Gartner Inc., Portland, Oregon

JOHN F. WHITE,

Altarum, Ann Arbor, Michigan

JOEL SAMUEL YUDKEN,

AFL-CIO, Washington, D.C.

Staff

TONI MARECHAUX, Director

TERI THOROWGOOD, Research Associate

LAURA TOTH, Senior Project Assistant

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2005. Sensor Systems for Biological Agent Attacks: Protecting Buildings and Military Bases. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11207.
×

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Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2005. Sensor Systems for Biological Agent Attacks: Protecting Buildings and Military Bases. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11207.
×

Preface

The past decade has seen a growing concern about the potential for biological attacks on this nation's homeland and its military facilities. This concern was dramatically underscored by the events in the fall of 2001. The attack against the World Trade Center and the Pentagon made clear terrorists’ interest in mass casualties rather than smaller events to call attention to their cause. And the introduction of B. anthracis into the U.S. mail showed a willingness by some to use biological agents and also demonstrated their ability to develop or acquire relatively high-grade agent. When added to earlier studies that confirmed the potential of biological attacks for creating large-scale casualties, the events of the fall of 2001 added both a new sense of realism and urgency regarding such threats.

Fortunately, during the past decade the nation had also invested significantly in developing technology to detect and respond to such a biological attack. As a result of this investment, it is now possible to detect and identify biological agents in time (tens of minutes to hours) to pretreat potential victims before the onset of symptoms, thereby greatly reducing the consequences of most attacks. However, these time scales are still too long to enable the occupants of a facility to take some action to minimize their exposure—for example, by altering airflow in a facility, sheltering in place, or evacuating the facility.

Realizing the attractiveness of certain facilities as targets of biological attack and the desirability of minimizing the effects of any such attack not just by early treatment of exposed personnel but also by detection in time to minimize such exposures, the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) chartered a study to examine the path to "detect to warn" sensors for facility protection. Specifically, DTRA asked that the study examine representative scenarios for facility protection, elucidate the driving sensor requirements, identify detection technologies and systems that have the potential for meeting those requirements, and chart a roadmap for attaining those capabilities.

To address these tasks the National Research Council formed a committee comprising experts in systems studies, sampling, detection technologies, microbiology, aerosol backgrounds, materials technologies, and instrument development and commercialization. The Committee on Materials and Manufacturing Processes for Advanced Sensors, in turn, called on experts at the Department of Defense (DoD), the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), the Department of Energy (DOE), and in the university and industry sectors to understand the issues associated with detect-to-warn for facility protection and the status and prospects for a broad range of advanced detection and identification systems. The committee examined all the major families of detection systems from simple aerosol detectors, to those that identify an agent based on its genetic, structural, or chemical properties, to so-called "functional sensors," which detect the response of cells and organisms to the presence of an agent.

Page viii Cite
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2005. Sensor Systems for Biological Agent Attacks: Protecting Buildings and Military Bases. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11207.
×

After approximately 1 year of briefings, study, evaluation, synthesis, and integration the committee arrived at a roadmap that it believes establishes an important but limited detect-to-warn capability in the near term and charts the path to a robust detect-to-warn capability in the next 5 to 7 years. This roadmap and the supporting analyses are given in the following report.

This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council's (NRC's) Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of this report:

Leonidas Bachas, University of Kentucky,

John Brockman, Sandia National Laboratories,

C.W. Chu, Texas Center for Superconductivity,

Catherine Fenselau, University of Maryland,

Robert Hawley, U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases,

Mohamed Sofi Ibrahim, U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Infectious Diseases,

John MacChesney, Bell Laboratories, Lucent Technologies,

Timothy Moshier, SPARTA, Inc.,

Gary Resnick, Los Alamos National Laboratory, and

Ashley Williamson, Southern Research Institute.

Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was overseen by Royce Murray of the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. Appointed by the National Research Council, he was responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.

The committee greatly appreciates the support and assistance of National Research Council staff members James Killian, Emily Ann Meyer, Julius Chang, and Sharon Dressen, and of Greg Eyring, who consulted in many stages of this study, including in its writing.

John Vitko, Jr., Chair

Committee on Materials and Manufacturing Processes for Advanced Sensors

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2005. Sensor Systems for Biological Agent Attacks: Protecting Buildings and Military Bases. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11207.
×
Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2005. Sensor Systems for Biological Agent Attacks: Protecting Buildings and Military Bases. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11207.
×
   

 Control of Bioaerosols,

 

41

   

 Air Cleaning,

 

41

   

 Air Treatment,

 

42

   

 Findings and Recommendations,

 

43

   

 Outdoor Aerosols,

 

43

   

 Indoor Aerosols,

 

44

   

 Predictive Models,

 

44

   

 Sampling Strategies to Obtain Critical Missing Data,

 

45

4

 

BIOAEROSOL SAMPLINGS SYSTEMS FOR NEAR-REAL-TIME DETECTION

 

46

   

 Particle Size Considerations,

 

47

   

 Sampling from the Ambient Environment,

 

47

   

 Sampling from Occupied Environments,

 

48

   

 Bioaerosol Sampling from Indoor Air,

 

48

   

 Sampling from Building Ductwork,

 

49

   

 Collector Technology,

 

56

   

 Sampling from Occupied Environments,

 

59

   

 Sampling Bioaerosols from Ambient Air,

 

61

   

 Aerosol Concentrators,

 

62

   

 Performance of Virtual Impactor Aerosol Concentrators,

 

63

   

 Performance of Cyclonic Concentrators,

 

64

   

 Novel Concentrators,

 

64

   

 Ideal Power to Draw Air Through a Concentrator,

 

65

   

 Power Consumption to Prevent Freezing of Liquid,

 

66

   

 Aerosol-to-Hydrosol Transfer Stages,

 

66

   

 Findings and Recommendations,

 

68

   

 Ductwork Sampling,

 

68

   

 Occupied Area Sampling,

 

69

   

 Ambient Sampling,

 

69

5

 

POINT AND STANDOFF DETECTION TECHNOLOGIES

 

71

   

 Point Detection Technologies,

 

72

   

 Current Instrumentation,

 

73

   

 Point Detection Summary,

 

74

   

 Standoff Detection Technologies,

 

75

   

 Ultraviolet Systems,

 

77

   

 Standoff Detection Summary,

 

78

   

 Novel or Advanced Standoff Detection Techniques,

 

79

   

 Ultraviolet Resonance Raman Spectroscopy,

 

79

   

 Other Ultraviolet Systems,

 

81

   

 Terahertz Spectroscopy,

 

81

   

 Findings and Recommendations,

 

81

   

 Spectroscopic Point Detectors,

 

81

   

 Standoff Detectors,

 

82

6

 

NUCLEIC ACID SEQUENCE-BASED IDENTIFICATION FOR DETECT-TO-WARN APPLICATIONS

 

84

   

 Sample Collection,

 

85

   

 Sample Preparation,

 

85

   

 Nucleic Acid Assays,

 

89

   

 Group I: Assays That Use Amplification Techniques,

 

90

   

 Group II: Sequence-Based Assays That Do Not Use Amplification Techniques,

 

99

   

 Detection, Identification, Analysis, and Reporting,

 

101

   

 Strawman Concept for a Fast RNA Detection/Identification System,

 

102

   

 Findings and Recommendations,

 

103

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2005. Sensor Systems for Biological Agent Attacks: Protecting Buildings and Military Bases. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11207.
×

7

 

STRUCTURE-BASED IDENTIFICATION FOR DETECT-TO-WARN APPLICATIONS

 

105

   

 The Structure-Based Biosensor: Basic Elements,

 

108

   

 Sample Collection,

 

108

   

 Sample Concentration,

 

108

   

 Binding of Target to the Molecular Recognition Element,

 

109

   

 Specific Detection and False Alarms,

 

110

   

 Addition and Removal of Reporter Groups,

 

113

   

 Detection of Target Molecular Recognition Element Complex,

 

113

   

 Renewal of the Sensor Surface for Continuous Monitoring,

 

114

   

 Consumables Considerations for Detect-to-Warn Applications,

 

114

   

 Notional Structure-Based Detection Systems,

 

115

   

 Detailed Considerations: Molecular Recognition Elements,

 

116

   

 Antibodies,

 

116

   

 Aptamers,

 

117

   

 Peptides,

 

118

   

 Small Molecules,

 

119

   

 Protein Receptors and Other Cell Surface Features,

 

119

   

 Imprinted Polymers,

 

120

   

 Detailed Considerations: Notional Detection Systems,

 

120

   

 Immunoassay Tickets,

 

120

   

 Direct Binding Assays,

 

121

   

 Surface Plasmon Resonance,

 

121

   

 Flow Cytometry,

 

122

   

 Target Binding That Changes Detectable Properties of Smart Sensor Surfaces,

 

124

   

 Colorimetric Detection,

 

124

   

 Fluorescence Detection,

 

125

   

 One-Step Signal Amplification Concepts,

 

125

   

 Modified Cell-Based Systems,

 

126

   

 Waveguides and Fluorescent Detection,

 

127

   

 Findings and Recommendations,

 

128

8

 

CHEMISTRY-BASED IDENTIFICATION FOR DETECT-TO-WARN APPLICATIONS

 

130

   

 Mass Spectrometry,

 

131

   

 Challenges for Rapid, Simple-to-Use Mass Spectrometry Identification Systems,

 

135

   

 Gas- and Liquid-Phase Separations for Pathogen Detection,

 

137

   

 Chemical Sensors,

 

138

   

 Dipicolinic Acid Analysis,

 

142

   

 Direct Labeling of Pathogens for Detection,

 

144

   

 Flow Cytometry,

 

144

   

 Planar Sensors,

 

144

   

 Vapor Analysis of Cell Metabolites,

 

146

   

 Microscale Monitoring of Cell Metabolites,

 

146

   

 Findings and Recommendations,

 

147

9

 

FUNCTION-BASED DETECTION

 

149

   

 Cell-Based Response Systems,

 

151

   

 Research Issues,

 

153

   

 Interfacing with Sampling Systems,

 

153

   

 Operational Deployment,

 

153

   

 Conclusion,

 

153

   

 Findings and Recommendations,

 

153

10

 

DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS FOR DETECT-TO-WARN DEFENSIVE ARCHITECTURES

 

155

   

 Systems Aspects of Defensive Architectural Design,

 

155

   

 Key Principles for Detection System Design,

 

156

   

 Facility Protection Architectures,

 

157

Suggested Citation:"Front Matter." National Research Council. 2005. Sensor Systems for Biological Agent Attacks: Protecting Buildings and Military Bases. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11207.
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Over the last ten years, there has been growing concern about potential biological attacks on the nation’s population and its military facilities. It is now possible to detect such attacks quickly enough to permit treatment of potential victims prior to the onset of symptoms. The capability to “detect to warn”, that is in time to take action to minimize human exposure, however, is still lacking. To help achieve such a capability, the Defense Threat Reduction Agency (DTRA) asked the National Research Council (NRC) to assess the development path for “detect to warn” sensors systems. This report presents the results of this assessment including analysis of scenarios for protecting facilities, sensor requirements, and detection technologies and systems. Findings and recommendations are provided for the most probable path to achieve a detect-to-warn capability and potential technological breakthroughs that could accelerate its attainment.

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