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Index
A
Abramovitz, Moses, 1 n.1
Academic research
advanced instruments and facilities, 7-8, 146, 147, 148
centers, 438-439
collaboration with federal laboratories, 93-94
commercialization of inventions, 432, 433, 440-442
doctoral employment, 84, 103, 144
export controls and, 35
federal funding, 46-47, 148, 168, 364, 405, 409, 416, 421-422, 431, 439, 443
grants, 170
industry collaboration, 408, 432, 433, 438-439, 440-442, 466
international students and scholars, 176
patent issues, 186, 188-190, 440-442
postdoctoral fellowships, 346
reimbursement for administrative costs, 148, 168, 416, 421-422
return on investment, 46-47, 48
sensitive but unclassified information, 36, 105, 474, 476-479
Advanced Placement (AP) and International Baccalaureate (IB) training, 4, 5, 119, 125, 126-127, 135, 514-515
Advanced Placement Incentive Program (APIP), 6, 127, 130-131, 514
Advanced research instrumentation and
facilities (ARIF), 7-8, 145-149, 405, 509
Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E), 8, 152-158, 509
Advanced Technology Program (ATP), 88, 90, 432, 433, 435-437
Advisory committees, national, 432, 442-443
Aeronautical engineering, 44, 60, 62
Aerospace technology, 44
Afghanistan war, 485
African Americans, 95, 131, 312, 313, 315, 316, 328, 341, 343, 344, 345, 351
Agriculture
higher education, 101, 343, 351
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negative effects of innovation in, 59
productivity, 46, 59
return on R&D investment, 47, 48
technological innovations, 42, 44, 59
AIDS, 43
Air quality, 58
Alexander, Lamar, 2
Alternative Trade Adjustment for Older Workers Program, 469
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), 128 n.39, 322
American Jobs Act of Wisconsin, 27
American Indians/Alaskan Natives, 328, 341, 344, 345, 351
American Intellectual Property Law Association, 188
Anthrax mailings, 66, 481, 483
Apple Corporation, 184
Applied research
corporate funding, 32
defined, 68
federal funding, 141, 397, 403, 408
practical applications in industry, 51
pure, 69
qualitative measures, 419-420
security-related, 141, 150, 485, 486, 487, 490
US leadership, 68
Argonne National Laboratory, 92
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation (APEC), 394-395
Asian Americans/Pacific Islanders, 315, 316, 344, 345
AT&T, 35
Atomic Energy Act, 475 n.1
Australia
higher education, 100
immigration policy, 178, 179, 384-385, 393, 394
tax credits for R&D, 195
test scores, 132, 308-311
Austria, AP test scores, 132
Automotive engineering, 44, 57-58, 60, 64, 71, 159, 196, 440
B
Bangalore, 23
Bardhan, Ashok, 211
Barrett, Craig, 17
Basic research
in China, 38
defined, 68
DOD, 7, 89, 90, 92, 137, 140, 141, 143, 150, 151, 402, 426, 431, 484, 486, 487
energy-related, 153
export controls, 35
federal funding, 7, 66-67, 89, 90, 92, 93, 136-143, 146-147, 150, 151-152, 397, 398, 402, 403, 408, 416, 417, 423, 433
high-risk, high-payoff, 8, 149-152, 398, 408, 416, 417, 423, 433, 436, 509
industry, 84, 86, 93, 157
practical applications in industry, 51, 52, 140
pure, 69
qualitative measures, 419
security-related, 90, 137, 140, 141, 150, 483, 484, 485, 487, 488, 490
recommendations, 7, 136
unclassified, 173
US leadership, 68
use-inspired, 69
Bayh–Dole Act, 433, 440-442
Belgium, 100, 310-311
Bell, Alexander Graham, 35
Bell Laboratories, 32, 83, 84, 157, 333
Bingaman, Jeff, 2
Biodefense research, 488, 493
Biological sciences, 76, 101, 336, 337, 338, 343, 351
Biomedical research, 33 n.38, 90, 139, 144, 199, 333, 334, 399, 411, 417, 423, 424
Biotechnology industry, 50, 59, 82, 88, 198, 222, 333, 453
Boehlert, Sherwood, 2
Boeing, 184, 491
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Brazil, 23, 206
BRICs, economic competitiveness, 206.
See also individual countries
Brin, Sergey, 35
Broadband Internet access, 12, 15, 201-203, 461, 462
Broadband over Power Lines (BPL), 203
Building Engineering and Science Talent (BEST) committee, 167
Bulgaria, 310-311
Bush, George W., 17, 25, 142, 202, 475, 476
Bush, Vannevar, 66, 112, 398-399
Business Roundtable, 108, 142
Business Software Alliance, 463
C
California Teach program, 4, 117-119
Canada
broadband access, 462
education, 100, 132, 200, 387
immigration policy, 178, 384-385, 391, 393-394, 395
innovation environment, 37, 200
spending on R&D, 74
tax credits for R&D, 195
US R&D in, 86, 195
working-age population, 212
Cancer, 55, 57, 59
Carbon capture and sequestration, 159
Careers in science and technology.
See also Employment;
Highly skilled workers;
Human capital development;
Researchers and scientists
academic faculty, 326, 333, 334, 336, 353
aspirations of K–12 students, 312, 314
disincentives, 328-333
engineers, 16, 164, 166, 168, 170, 329, 383
government, 169, 333, 334, 336, 351, 353, 481, 494-496, 497, 499
industry, 333, 334, 335, 336, 351, 353
information about options, 351
PhDs, 351, 353
promotion of, 326
prospects, 103, 164, 168, 170, 171-172, 332-333, 351, 353
salaries, 338, 339
student interest in, 98-104, 327-328
trends in employment, 335, 338
Carnegie, Andrew, 35
Case Institute of Technology, 120 n.19
Cellular phones, 71, 462
Center for Strategic and International Studies (CSIS), 108, 213, 214
Center for the Study of Teaching, 116
Chemical industry, 14, 86
Chile, 311
China
advanced instruments and facilities, 147
broadband access, 462
degrees in science or engineering, 16, 99, 216, 217
doctoral production, 387, 388
economic growth, 1, 14, 68, 206, 209, 222
energy consumption, 221
foreign investment in, 209, 210, 219
graduate education, 76, 78, 79, 217, 342, 379, 387, 388
highly skilled workers, 24, 32, 73, 176, 208
immigration policy, 391, 395
incentives for returning students, 82, 173, 461
innovation environment, 23, 38, 78, 79, 147, 195, 209, 210
market share of advanced technology, 14, 15, 206-207, 209, 210, 219, 220, 462-463
middle-class consumer market, 14, 206-207
Ningbo Economic & Technical Development Zone, 195
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outsourcing by US companies to, 1, 14, 23, 73, 88
piracy of intellectual property, 456, 463
population, 206
publication volume and frequency, 77
R&D policy, 38, 72-73, 74, 195
research universities, 35, 386 n.24
spending on R&D, 74, 208
stay rates of students in US, 382
tax credits for R&D, 195
test scores, 308-311
US R&D in, 86
wage structure, 24, 29, 73, 88
working-age population, 212
Chinese Science Foundation, 72
Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 58-59
Cisco, 207
Civilian Technology Corporation, 434-435
Class Action Fairness Act of 2005, 185
Climate Change Science Program, 411
Clinical medicine, 76
Clinton, Bill, 17
Cold War, 38, 66, 90, 156, 351, 424, 475, 485, 493
Collaborative research and development agreements(CRADA), 339-340, 439-440
College Board, 126, 127
College education.
See Graduate education in science and engineering;
Higher education in science and engineering;
Undergraduate education in science and mathematics
Colleges and universities.
See Academic research;
Higher education in science and engineering;
Public colleges and universities;
Research universities;
individual institutions
Commission on the Future of the
United States Aerospace
Industry, 442
Communications technologies, 39, 44, 53, 60, 63, 140, 201-203, 211
Computational science infrastructure, 433, 442-443
Computer sciences.
See Mathematics and computer sciences
Computers, 44, 47, 52, 53, 71, 86, 206
Congressional Budget Office, 12, 203
Consolidated Appropriations Act of 2005, 10 n.8, 177 n.15
Contests and prizes in science, 76
Continuing education, 9, 172-173, 467-468, 485, 498
for employees of US businesses, 172-173, 467, 485, 510
researchers and scientists, 172-173
tax credits, 9, 172-173, 457, 467-468, 485, 498, 511
Controlled technologies, 34-36
deemed export policy, 10, 35, 105, 180-181, 388, 391
Cooperative Economic Development
Agreements (CEDAs), 442
Coordinating Council for Mathematics and Science Teaching, 324
Corporate R&D.
See also US businesses
academic research collaboration, 408, 432, 433, 438-439, 440-442, 466
applied research, 32
basic research, 84, 86, 93, 157
consortia, 88, 90, 432, 433, 435-437, 466
CRADAs, 439-440
doctoral employment, 83, 84
and employment, 193
energy-related, 156, 157
foreign-owned companies in US, 86, 194
funding, 48-49, 84, 85, 86-88, 90, 137, 215, 410
globalization, 86
government–industry collaboration, 106, 116 n.10, 133, 158, 324, 340, 375, 432, 433-435, 439-440, 443
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laboratory facilities, 92 n.50, 93
manufacturing sectors, 86
offshore, 86, 195
patent and licensing issues, 440-442
postdoctoral researchers, 144
return on investment, 48-49
startup companies, 86
survey of, 453
tax credits, 11-12, 88, 89, 184, 185, 192-197, 457, 465-466, 511
trends, 32, 93, 137, 441
venture capital investments, 86-88, 90, 185, 198, 200, 209, 220, 434, 448
Council of Economic Advisers, 12, 203
Council on Competitiveness, 108, 109, 143, 177, 187, 193, 213, 424, 450
Council on Graduate Schools, 385
CUNY Bernard Baruch College, 469
Cyprus, 132, 308-311
Czech Republic
education, 100, 132, 387
immigration policy, 178, 385, 393
D
Data collection and evaluation
graduate education, 346, 351, 354
on US research and innovation, 444, 445, 452-454
DAVINCI, 82
Deemed-export controls.
See also Export controls on technology
academic research and, 35
basic research and, 35
international students and researchers, 10, 35, 105, 180-181, 388
national security, 10, 35, 105, 180-181, 388, 391, 474, 479-481
policy, 10, 35, 105, 180-181, 388, 391, 392
Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA), 33, 39 n.53, 150, 151-152, 154, 157, 169, 420.
See also US Department of Defense
Defense Federal Acquisition Regulation Supplement (DFARS), 181, 480
Defense-related research and technologies, 66-67, 90, 105 n.68, 137, 140, 141, 143, 150, 151-152, 399, 407, 409, 484, 485-488, 490, 491
Defense Science Board, 487
Denmark, 462
Deutch, John, 140
Developing countries, 59.
See also individual countries
implementing technology in, 64
standard of living, 36
DeVry Institute of Technology, 469
Dirac, Paul, 51
Disaster mitigation, 63-64
Dow, Herbert Henry, 35
Dow Chemical, 35
Dubois, Lawrence, 151
Duderstadt, Jim, 162
Duke University, 189
E
Early-career awards and funding, 7, 136, 143-145, 146, 149, 150, 161, 326, 423, 426-431, 508-509.
See also Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers
Earthquake engineering, 63-64
eBay, 207
Economic competitiveness, international comparison, 23-25, 29, 68, 205, 206-208.
See also US competitiveness in science and technology;
US economy
Economics, 337, 338
Economy. See Global economy;
US economy
Edison, Thomas, 51
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Education. See Graduate education in science and engineering;
Higher education in science and engineering;
K–12 science and mathematics education;
Undergraduate education in science and mathematics
curriculum design, 66
employee continuing education, 172-173, 467-468, 485, 498
public concerns about, 37
Einstein, Albert, 35
El Salvador, 14
Electricity, 41, 44, 51, 60, 61, 63, 64
Electron microscope, 145
Electronics, 44, 83, 86, 198
Employment.
See also Careers in science and technology;
Human capital development
corporate R&D, 83, 84, 193
foreign direct investment in US and, 207-208
globalization, 210-212
graduate education and, 83, 84, 103, 104, 164, 166, 168, 170, 171-172, 328, 332-335, 351
information technology and, 47-48, 201
foreign-born workers, 338, 339, 381-382, 383-384, 393
new jobs, 14
offshore movement of jobs, 26-30, 88, 91, 209-212, 466-467, 468
PhDs, 83, 84, 103, 144
public concerns, 36
returns on R&D investment, 49, 50, 211-212
tax credits for corporate R&D and, 194
Energy.
See also US Department of Energy
ARPA-E research organization, 152-158
basic research, 153
conservation and efficiencies, 63, 64-65, 159, 440
corporate R&D, 156, 157
costs, 37, 154
development of alternative sources, 153, 472
economic issues, 65, 154, 155
environmental challenges, 154, 156
funding of research, 153, 154, 457
price shocks, 155
promising technologies, 158, 159
security issues, 154, 155, 156
supply, 155, 159, 221
Engineering
doctorates awarded, 80, 331
employment, 16, 164, 166, 168, 170, 329, 383
funding for research, 90, 93, 137, 138, 139, 141, 142
graduate school enrollments, 330, 336, 337, 350, 386
international graduate students, 83, 350, 379, 381, 382, 383, 386
master’s degrees, 349
minority doctoral degrees, 351
salaries of PhDs, 338
undergraduate degrees, 16, 101, 164, 166, 343
US competitiveness, 76, 80, 83
Engineering Research Centers (ERCs), 438
Environment
agricultural mechanization and, 59
air quality, 58
automotive emissions, 57-58
carbon capture and sequestration, 159
chlorofluorocarbons, 58-59
energy-related issues, 154, 156
funding for research, 93, 139, 156
negative effects of innovations, 42, 57-59
soil erosion, 59
US competitiveness in research, 76
water quality, 57
European Union (EU)
disciplinary strengths, 76
doctoral production, 79, 217, 387
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economic growth, 213, 222
engineering students, 32
GDP per capita, 199
high-risk research, 425
highly skilled workforce, 387, 388
innovation environment, 23, 199
international students, 384, 385, 393
Justice and International Affairs council, 178, 385, 393
New and Emerging Science and Technology (NEST) program, 425
patents and patent system, 186, 190, 191
publication volume and frequency, 74, 77, 78, 215
recruiting talent, 82, 384, 388
Researcher’s Mobility Portal, 82
spending on R&D, 72, 74, 208, 409, 411, 412
working-age population, 212, 213
Export Administration Act, 10 n.9, 180, 479
Export controls on technology, 10, 34-36, 105, 180-181, 388, 391, 474, 485
F
Faraday, Michael, 51
Federal Communications Commission, 203, 433, 439
Federal Demonstration Partnership, 416, 421-422
Federal funding of R&D.
See also individual agencies
academic, 46-47, 148, 168, 364, 405, 409, 416, 421-422, 431, 439, 443
advanced research instrumentation and facilities, 7-8, 145-149, 403, 509
by agency, 402, 403, 406
alternative viewpoints, 138, 153, 170
applied research, 141, 397, 403, 408
balancing allocations, 7, 137, 141, 397, 400-408
basic research, 7, 66-67, 89, 90, 92, 93, 136-143, 146-147, 150, 151-152, 397, 398, 402, 403, 408, 416, 417, 423, 433
budgets, 398, 399, 406
competition for resources, 213, 362, 365, 375
competitive merit review, 405, 413, 417
coordination of, 7-8, 148-149, 397, 401, 414, 416, 420, 432, 437
cost estimates for recommendations, 502-503, 508-511
deemed export policy and, 105
defense-related, 93, 142, 143, 150, 151-152, 407, 409, 426
by discipline, 90-91, 93, 137, 138, 139, 141, 142, 411, 413
early-career awards, 7, 136, 143-145, 146, 149, 150, 161, 326, 423, 426-431, 508-509
electronic grant application, 417
energy-related, 8, 152-158, 159, 457, 509
evaluation of best practices and, 405, 416, 417
GDP share of investment, 17, 47, 72, 85, 91, 137, 138, 139, 398, 409-410
guidelines for investing adequately, 408-413
high-risk research, 8, 149-152, 398, 408, 416, 417, 423, 433, 436, 509
international comparisons, 16-17, 72-73, 74, 137, 205, 208, 215, 409-411, 412
K22 awards, 431
nanotechnology, 448
national/homeland security R&D, 141, 150, 399, 409, 484, 485, 486, 488
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peer review system and, 150, 424
postdoctoral training support, 346, 354-356, 431
prizes and awards, 8, 158, 160-161, 416, 423, 509
R01, R23, R29, R37 grant applications, 429, 431
rate of return on investment, 46-48, 49-50, 399, 411
rationale for, 45-46
recommendations, 4, 7-8, 110, 136-137, 142-143, 145, 157, 258, 400-401, 408, 411-412, 414
reimbursement for administrative
costs, 148, 168, 416, 421-422
research centers, 438
restraints on, 89-92
size and duration of awards, 416, 417, 418
social rates of returns, 49-50, 161, 399
sources, 89-91
tax incentives, 11-12, 88, 89, 184, 185, 192-197, 203, 398, 408, 413, 424, 457, 465-466, 511
trends, 32-33, 85, 89-92, 93, 137, 138, 205, 399, 401, 402, 403, 404, 406, 407, 409, 434, 435
and US competitiveness, 86-92, 93, 205, 215, 409-410
venture capital, 88, 90, 433-435
Federal laboratories. See National laboratories
Fermi, Enrico, 35
Fiber optics, 45, 60
Financial Markets Intermediary Committee, 461
Finland
degrees in science or engineering, 99, 100, 165
economy, 1, 205
innovation environment, 23, 37, 198
spending for R&D, 411
tax policies, 197, 198
Ford Foundation, 120 n.19
Ford Motor Company, 14
Foreign Exchange Committee, 461
Foreign Sales Corporation, 466
Foreign students and researchers.
See International students and researchers
Forrester Research, 211
France
AP test scores, 132
degrees in science or engineering, 16, 99, 100, 165
doctoral production, 387
economic competitiveness, 206
spending on R&D, 72
tax credits for R&D, 195
US R&D in, 86, 195
Free Application for Federal Student Aid, 376
Free trade, 28, 36, 212
FreedomCAR, 440
Freeman, Richard, 217-218
Friedman, Thomas, 23-24
Frigidaire, 58
Funding of R&D.
See also Corporate R&D;
Federal funding of R&D by investment stage and funder, 425
G
Gates, Bill, 17
Gateway to Education Materials (GEM), 128
Genentech, 184
General Electric Company, 17, 32, 120 n.19
Georgia, Republic of, 64, 100
German Academic International Network (GAIN), 82
Germany
Academic Exchange Service, 82
economic competitiveness, 68, 206
education, 79, 99, 100, 132, 386, 387, 388
immigration policy, 179
per capita income, 73
R&D, 72, 86
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Gerstner, Louis V., Jr., 17
GI Bill of 1944, 31, 106, 375
Glenn, John, 108
Glenn Commission on K–12 education, 109
Global climate change program, 149
Global economy
competitiveness, 23-25, 29, 205, 206-208
emerging markets, 206-208
information technology and, 211, 221
job movement, 26-30, 210-212, 399
multinational corporations and, 209-210
technological innovation and, 41 n.2, 48 n.13
Global Insight, 211
Global positioning technology, 140
Global warming, 59
GM, 14, 219
Goals 2000: Educate America Act, 303
Goldman Sachs, 206
Google, 32, 35, 140, 184, 207
Gordon, Bart, 2
Government Accountability Office, 495
Graduate education in science and engineering
alternative viewpoint, 170
apprenticeship model, 78
attrition, 102
and career prospects, 103, 164, 168, 170, 171-172, 332-333, 351, 353
data collection and evaluation, 346, 351, 354
disincentives, 330-331
doctoral production, 16, 72, 78-81, 102, 163, 170, 205, 216, 217, 328, 329, 331, 332, 351, 387, 388
enrollments, 102, 103-104, 163, 164, 170, 217, 328, 330, 336-337, 342, 350, 385
faculty preparation and support, 256
federal funding, 71, 168-172, 346, 349-350, 510
fellowships, traineeships, and
stipends for US students, 9, 168-172, 326, 341, 346, 350, 352, 354, 485, 510
international competition for talent, 78-83, 342
international students in US, 83, 102, 104, 163, 216, 217, 328, 349, 350, 378, 379-382, 383, 385, 386
for K–12 teachers, 5, 6, 119, 124-126, 304, 350, 504-505
master’s degrees, 5, 6, 119, 124-126, 304, 329, 332, 348-350, 485, 504-505
minorities (underrepresented), 102, 328, 349, 351
quality of undergraduate education and, 371
recommended federal actions, 256, 346, 349-350, 353-354
recruitment of students, 76, 103
reforms, 171
research assistanceships, 350, 352, 353
teaching assistanceships, 350, 352
trends, 385
US competitiveness, 16, 70, 72, 76, 78-83, 102, 216-217, 342, 350, 445
women, 102, 328, 349, 351, 379
Graduate Record Examination (GRE), 103-104, 336, 337, 340
Graduate Research Fellowship program, 170, 171
Graduate Scholar Awards in Science,
Technology, Engineering, and
Mathematics (GSA-STEM), 168
Greece, 132
Greenspan, Alan, 17
Grove, Andrew, 35
H
Hart–Rudman Commission, 25, 66, 142
Hatch–Waxman law, 190
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Health care.
See also Medical technologies;
Public health cost savings from new technologies, 54, 57
graduate school enrollments, 336-337
public concerns, 37
Heart disease, 55
Heisenberg, Werner, 51
High, Howard, 17
High-energy physics, 16, 145, 153
High-risk research, 8, 149-152, 398, 408, 416, 417, 423, 433, 436, 509
High-technology bubble, 29, 164, 198, 200
Higher education in science and engineering.
See also Graduate education in science and technology;
International students and researchers;
Public colleges and universities;
Undergraduate education in science and mathematics
access, 366, 370, 376
alternative viewpoint, 164
costs per student, 359
data collection and evaluation, 346, 351, 354
enrollments by type of institution, 360, 380
faculty, 72, 256, 326, 333, 334, 336, 353
financial barriers, 31
flexible options for part-time and nonresidential students, 375
funding trends, 31-32, 357-358, 371, 386 n.23
global capacity, 385-388
income and, 367, 370, 373, 374
international comparisons, 16, 32, 72, 76, 100, 162, 199, 205, 208
postdoctoral training, 346, 354-356
public vs private, 359, 360, 363, 365, 368, 375, 380
quality, 366, 386-387
recommendations, 162, 256-257, 358
revenues by type of institution, 365
tax credits for continuing education, 9, 172-173, 457, 467-468, 485, 498, 511
tuition fees, 368, 376
US competitiveness, 16, 70, 205, 217, 386-387
and US economy, 358-359
Highly skilled workers.
See also Careers in science and technology
demand for, 29, 326
desirable skills, 30, 88-89
foreign-born in US, 16, 216, 339, 382, 383
offshore supply, 91, 210
recruitment, 175-177
retraining, 40, 212, 399
supply of, 29, 88, 213, 220, 326
tax credits for continuing education, 9, 172-173, 457, 467-468, 485, 498, 511
US share, 216
visas set aside for, 14
wages, 28-29, 88, 210, 218
Highways, 44, 60
Hispanic Americans, 95, 131, 312, 313, 315, 316, 341, 343, 344, 345, 351
Hong Kong. See China
Household appliances, 45, 60, 61
Human capital development.
See also Careers in science and technology;
Employment assistance programs for displaced workers, 457, 468, 469
continuing education for employees, 172-173, 467-468, 485, 498
critical skills areas, 495, 496
defense-related jobs, 67, 106, 168, 169, 375, 485, 493-499
entrepreneurship education, 467
H1-B training grants, 469
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health insurance and pensions, 14, 467, 470
highly skilled immigrants, 10, 177-179, 378, 384-385, 389, 391, 393-394, 395-396, 457, 469-470
national laboratories, 493-494, 495, 497
offshore outsourcing restrictions, 27-28, 457, 470, 471
retraining of workers, 40, 212, 457, 468
wage supplements and on-the-job training, 469
Hungary, 308-311
I
IBM, 14, 17, 32, 137, 215, 219
Iceland, 100, 387
IDA Ireland, 196
Imaging technologies, 45
Immelt, Jeffrey R., 17
Immigration and Nationality Act, 36, 175
Immigration policy
automatic extension of visas, 175- 177
business travel, 394-395
change of status, 175
deemed export controls, 10, 35, 105, 180-181, 388, 391, 392, 474
family reunification program, 178, 393, 394
H1-B visas, 10, 457, 470
highly skilled workers, 14
intent-to-return-home (214b) provision, 175, 391
OECD countries, 177-179, 378, 384-385, 391, 393-396
points- (skills-) based programs, 177-179, 378, 384-385, 391, 393-394
reciprocity agreements, 175, 378, 388, 391
recommendations, 9-10, 389-393
residency after graduation, 10, 395-396, 457
and scientific workforce, 220, 469-470
self-employed workers, 394
SEVIS tracking system, 389
student visas, 9-10, 33-34, 82-83, 104, 163, 164, 173-177, 378, 385, 388-393, 395
Technology Alert List, 174, 392
travel for scientific meetings, 174
Visas Condor anti-terrorist screening, 392
Visas Mantis clearances, 174, 378, 389, 391, 392
work permits, 175-177, 389, 395, 396
working-age population and, 212
and workloads, 389-390
India
consumer market, 206
economic growth, 2, 206, 209, 222
energy consumption, 221
higher education, 16, 24, 79, 379, 387, 388
highly skilled workers, 73, 82, 176, 208, 220
incentives for returning students, 82, 173, 461
outsourcing by US companies, 2, 23, 73, 76, 88
population, 206
research universities, 35
stay rates of students in US, 382
tax incentives for R&D, 195-196
wage structure, 15, 24, 29, 73, 88
working-age population, 212
Indonesia, 311
Industry.
See also Corporate R&D;
Multinational corporations;
US businesses careers in S&T, 333, 334, 335, 336, 351, 353
Industry–University Cooperative Research Centers (I/UCRCs), 438
Infant mortality, 56
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defense R&D, 484
Faculty Early Career Development Program, 145
graduate education support, 71, 168, 170, 171, 349-350, 354
innovation surveys, 445, 452-454
major research instrumentation program, 149
Math and Science Partnership, 121
Office of Integrative Activities (OIA), 149
peer review system, 150
research centers, 438, 439
Small Grants for Exploratory Research (SGER), 150
spending on R&D, 7, 33, 89, 140, 143, 144, 146, 150, 152, 364, 402, 406, 411, 439, 443
Task Force on Transformative Research, 425
undergraduate education support, 165
National Security Decision Directive 189 (NSDD-189), 105, 474, 475-476
National Space Policy (1989), 440
National Venture Capital Association (NVCA), 86-87
Netherlands, 100, 308-311, 462
Network systems, 32
Networking and Information Technology R&D, 411
Neutron spectroscopy, 145
New Jersey, 121
New Zealand
education, 100, 308-311, 387
immigration policy, 178, 384-385, 393
Nigeria, 82
9/11 attacks, 25, 33-36, 66, 82, 163, 385, 388, 474, 481, 483
No Child Left Behind Act, 95, 113, 120, 121, 255, 322
North Carolina School of Science and Mathematics (NCSSM), 132-133
Northrop Grumman, 491
Norway, education, 100, 132, 308-311, 387
Noyce, Robert, 51
Nuclear fusion, 51, 153
Nuclear technology, 45, 159
Nuclear weapons, 39, 66, 156
O
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, 92
Office of Management and Budget, 148, 160, 189, 353, 401, 421, 422, 453
Office of Science and Technology Policy, 148, 158, 160, 401, 408, 445, 447, 450, 452
Offshore outsourcing
cost-effectiveness, 15, 27-28, 209
disclosure of, 457, 471
and domestic wages, 28-29
employment effects in US, 26-30, 88, 210-212
and investment climate, 37, 456
market size, 91
protectionist measures, 27-28, 457, 470, 471
public concerns about, 37
reasons for, 3-4, 26-27, 88, 209-210
service sector jobs, 28, 91, 209-210, 211, 466-467, 468
by US businesses, 1, 14, 23, 26-30, 73, 88
and US competitiveness, 1-2, 14, 88
Opportunity Indiana, 27
Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development, 15, 38, 45 n.6, 47, 68, 194, 199, 212-213.
See also individual countries
foreign students, 387
Frascati Manual, 453
immigration policies, 177-179, 378, 384-385, 391, 393-396
Programme for International Student Assessment, 30-31, 95
spending on R&D, 409, 411, 412
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P
Particle detectors and accelerators, 16, 145
Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles (PNGV), 440
Pastore, Pasquale, 195
Patents.
See also Intellectual property protection;
US Patent and
Trademark Office
academic research and, 186, 188-190, 440-442
applications by country of applicant, 75
definition, 186 n.12
from federally funded research, 71
immigrant contributions, 382
international comparisons, 16, 72, 75, 186, 187-188, 190, 191, 192
nanotechnology, 449
trends in critical technologies, 52, 449
US share, 215
Pauli, Wolfgang, 51
Pell grants, 366, 369, 371, 373, 376
Pennsylvania, 121
Perry, William, 140
Petroleum and petrochemical technology, 45, 57-58
Pharmaceuticals, 47, 48, 54, 86, 186, 190-192, 199
Philippines, test scores, 311
Physical sciences.
See also K–12 science and mathematics education
doctorates awarded, 80, 331, 351
employment, 335, 383
funding for research, 90, 93, 137, 138, 139, 141, 142, 153
graduate school enrollments, 330, 386
instrumentation innovations, 145
international graduate students, 379, 382, 383, 386
minority doctoral degrees, 351
salaries of PhDs, 338
teacher qualifications, 95, 97
test scores, 97, 309, 311, 312, 313, 314
undergraduate degrees awarded, 101, 343
US competitiveness, 76, 80, 83
Postdoctoral scholars
corporate research, 144
federal funding, 346, 354-356, 431
foreign PhDs in US, 387, 389
research appointments, 143-144, 354-356
training, 346, 354-356, 431
visa policies, 389
President’s Council of Advisors on Science and Technology (PCAST), 26, 108, 109, 142, 208, 217
President’s Information Technology Advisory Committee, 442
Presidential Early Career Award for Scientists and Engineers (PECASE), 145, 146, 158
Presidential Innovation Award, 8, 158, 509
PricewaterhouseCoopers, 86
Product liability and tort reform, 16, 185, 456, 461
Productivity of science and technology research
administrative policies and procedures, 415, 416, 421-422
age of investigator and, 143-144, 149, 426-431
environment and culture of research and, 415, 416-418
growth of US economy, 1, 183-184, 205, 206, 459, 460
information technology and, 47-48, 183, 201, 417, 459
management and review of programs, 415, 416, 419-420
tax credits and, 466
Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), 15, 312
Project Lead the Way (PLTW), 6, 128-129
Project 2061, 128
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Protectionist policies, 27-28.
See also Export controls on technology
Public colleges and universities.
See also Graduate education in science and engineering;
Higher education in science and engineering;
Undergraduate education in science and mathematics
community colleges, 346, 347-348, 360, 371, 374, 442
competition for state resources, 362, 365, 375
enrollments, 358, 359, 360, 361
expenditures by type, 363
faculty composition and salaries, 370-371, 375
financial pressures, 357, 359, 361-366
international students, 380
quality of education and services, 357, 358, 362, 370
recommended federal actions, 374-376
research funding, 364
research institutions, 358
revenue sources, 364, 365
state appropriations, 367, 368, 372, 375
student aid, 357-358, 366, 369, 370, 371, 372, 374-376
student-faculty ratios, 362, 363, 370
transfer and articulation agreements, 371
tuition and fees, 368, 374
Public health
competition for education resources, 362, 365, 375
disease trends, 43
globalization and, 221
practical applications of research, 51, 53-57
spending for aging population, 213, 219-220
Public–private partnerships, R&D, 106, 116 n.10, 133, 158, 324, 340, 375, 432, 433-435, 439-440, 443
R
Race/ethnicity.
See African Americans;
American Indians/Alaskan Natives;
Asian Americans/Pacific Islanders;
Hispanic Americans;
Minorities (underrepresented) in science and technology
Radio and television, 44, 60, 71
RAND Corporation, 450
Raytheon, 491
Reagan administration, 105, 475, 485
Recombinant-DNA technology, 50
Recommendations
cost tables, 501-511
economic policy incentives for innovation, 4, 110-111, 192, 260
of focus groups, 254-263
higher education, 4, 9-10, 110, 256-257
K–12 education, 4-7, 110, 112, 119, 254-255
key challenges, 4
national/homeland security, 262
research funding, 4, 7-8, 110, 136-137, 142-143, 145, 157, 258, 400-401, 408, 411-412, 414
Recycling technologies, 64
Refrigeration technologies, 44, 58-59, 60, 61, 64
Research & development.
See also Academic research;
Applied research;
Basic research;
Corporate R&D;
Federal funding of R&D;
National laboratories;
Researchers and scientists
benchmarking, 445-446, 447
centers of excellence, 433
defense- and security-related, 66-67, 90, 105 n.68, 137, 140-141, 143, 150, 151-152, 169, 399, 407, 409, 484, 485-488, 490, 491
definitions, 69, 105 n.70
digital cyberinfrastructure, 416, 417, 442-443
energy-related, 152-158, 399
environment and culture for, 415, 416-418
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evaluation of programs, 405, 416, 417, 419-420, 436
facilities and equipment (advanced), 7-8, 141, 145-149, 169, 403, 509
GDP share, 84, 85, 91, 205, 208, 412
interdisciplinary institutes, 433
international collaboration and
conferences, 34
international comparisons, 16-17, 74, 137, 208, 412
medical innovations, 32
offshore outsourcing, 210
online posting of problems, 417
peer review system, 150, 185
postdoctoral appointments, 143-144, 354-356
pressure for short-term results, 150, 161, 215, 424
priority topics, 160, 399
productivity enhancement, 415-422
public investment in, see Federal funding of R&D
security concerns, 34-36
spending trends, 137, 208, 215, 412
Research & development tax credits, 11-12, 88, 89, 184, 185, 192-197, 203, 398, 408, 413, 424, 457, 465-466, 511.
See also Research and Experimentation Tax Credit
Research and Experimentation Tax Credit, 192
Research universities, 35, 72, 184-185, 379, 386 n.24, 438.
See also Academic research
Researchers and scientists.
See also Highly skilled workers
academic positions, 326, 341
assistanceships and traineeships, 350, 352
continuing education, 172-173
demand and supply, 29, 164, 168, 169, 170
early-career funding, 7, 136, 143-145, 146, 149, 150, 161, 326, 423, 426-431, 508-509
international comparisons, 72, 216
networking and collaboration initiatives, 82
NIH principal investigator grants, 33, 426, 431
postdoctoral training, 354-356
prizes and awards, 158, 160-161, 341, 417
productivity, 148, 415-422
publication volume and frequency, 70, 72, 205, 215
salaries, 144, 338
security clearances, 169
visa policies, 33-34, 82-83, 104, 175-177
work permits and residence status for doctoral recipients, 175-177
Ricardo, David, 28
Romania, test scores, 310-311
Romer, Paul, 29
Roosevelt, Franklin D., 112
Russia, economic change, 38
Russian Federation
economic growth, 206
education, 132, 310-311
spending on R&D, 74
Rutgers University, 469
S
Samuelson, Robert J., 73
Sarbanes–Oxley Act, 456, 461
Scanning tunneling microscope, 145
Scholarship America, 376
Schrodinger, Erwin, 51
Schumpeter, Joseph, 458
Science and Mathematics Education Task Force, 124
Science and technology.
See also Technological innovation;
US competitiveness in science and technology
disillusionment with careers in, 312, 314
globalization, 70
quantitative policy studies, 414
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Science and Technology Centers (STCs), 438
Science Teacher Institute, 6, 125-126
Securities and Exchange Commission, 433, 439
SEMATECH, 106, 436
Semiconductor manufacturing, 15
Sensitive but unclassified information, 36, 105, 474, 476-479
Service sector
international competition, 27-28, 453
offshore outsourcing of jobs, 28, 91, 209-210, 211, 466-467, 468
Silicon Valley, 176-177, 461
Singapore
Biopolis, 199
economic competitiveness, 68
education, 32, 99, 199, 308-311
innovation environment, 23, 37, 196, 198, 199
publication volume and frequency, 77
Standards, Productivity, and Innovation Board, 199
tax policies, 196
US R&D in, 86
Sloan Foundation, 458
Slovak Republic, test scores, 310-311
Slovenia, test scores, 308-311
Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) program, 88, 90, 433-434, 435, 437
Small Business Technology Transfer (STTR) program, 433, 434
SMART program, 495, 497
Smith, Adam, 458
Social and behavioral sciences, 81, 93, 101, 137, 139, 141, 330, 331, 343, 351, 379, 383
Social security, 219-220, 457
Software
piracy losses, 456, 463, 464
services, 76, 199
Solow, Robert, 1 n.1, 45-46, 458
South Africa, 311
South Korea
advanced instruments and facilities, 147
broadband and cellular service, 201, 462
degrees in science or engineering, 16, 99, 100, 165, 198, 379
doctoral production, 387, 388
economic growth, 209, 463
foreign student enrollments in, 387
graduate education, 76, 78, 79, 217, 379, 387, 388
Incheon Free Economic Zone, 196
innovation environment, 23, 37, 73, 76, 147, 196, 197, 198
publication volume and frequency, 77
spending on R&D, 74, 411
stay rates of students in US, 382
tax environment, 196, 197
test scores, 310-311
Space Act (1958), 440
Spain, 100, 387
Speech recognition, 32
Sputnik, 16, 39, 67, 73, 106, 151, 169, 303, 456, 494
Standard-of-living improvements, 59-65, 67, 205, 209, 221-222
Stevenson–Wydler Technology Innovation Act of 1986, 439
STMicroelectronics, 195
Strayer University, 469
Structural design, 63-64
Student and Exchange Visitor Information System (SEVIS), 389
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS), 43
Summer institutes and seminars, 5, 117-119, 120-124, 125, 126, 133, 135, 304, 318, 485, 498, 504-505
Sun Microsystems, 35
Sweden
education, 99, 100, 132, 134, 310-311, 387
spending for R&D, 411
US R&D in, 86
Switzerland, 76, 100, 132
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T
Taiwan
degrees in science or engineering, 99, 100, 165
economic growth, 209
graduate education, 79, 217, 379, 388
highly skilled workers, 177
incentives for returning scholars, 173
innovation environment, 23
publication volume and frequency, 77
stay rates of students in US, 382
test scores, 311
Taskforce on the Future of American Innovation, 108
Tax policies
capital gains, 12, 197, 200
corporate rates, 12, 197, 200, 220, 466
cost-effectiveness, 193, 203
cost of recommendations, 511
education tax credits for employees, 9, 172-173, 457, 467-468, 485, 498, 511
employment effects, 194
equipment tax credits and
depreciation reforms, 197, 200, 203, 457, 466
international comparisons, 12, 195-196, 197-200, 208
investment of foundation assets in
start-ups, 461, 465-466
joint ventures and, 194, 466
qualifying expenditures, 197
R&D tax credits, 11-12, 88, 89, 184, 185, 192-197, 203, 398, 408, 413, 424, 457, 465-466, 511
regulations, 194
stock option expensing, 461
tuition tax credits, 341, 366
Teacher Institutes for the 21st Century, 121
Teachers. See K–12 science and mathematics teachers
Teaching
assistanceships, 350, 352
inquiry-based approach, 7, 122-123, 126
learning theory and, 66
quality of, 95, 123, 316-322
Technological innovation.
See also Research & development
diffusion rate, 71
drivers for, 39, 59, 106, 415, 455-456
by early-career researchers, 143-144, 149, 426-431
and economic growth, 14, 41 n.2, 43, 45-50, 205-206, 208-209, 414, 455, 458-459
and employment, 29, 49, 50
environment for, 2-3, 23, 37, 38, 78, 79, 147, 195, 199, 209, 210, 300, 415, 416-418
extension centers, 443
financial regulations and, 460-461
foreign emulation of US model, 37, 72, 78, 208
global enterprise, 209-210
human capital and, 457
incentives for, 11-12, 182-185, 197-201
intellectual property protection and, 11, 184, 185, 456-457, 463-465
negative effects, 42, 57, 59
Nobel Prizes, 145, 157, 427
outsourcing and, 26, 456, 470-471
patent trends for critical technologies, 52
presidential-level challenge, 472
prizes and awards, 8, 158, 160-161, 416, 423, 509
product liability and tort reform and, 185, 456, 461
productivity gains, 47-48, 50-51
and quality of life, 45
regional innovation hot spots, 458, 471
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research instrumentation, 145-146
surveys of, 445
tax policy and, 11-12, 457, 465-466
trade policy and, 456, 462-463
20th-century engineering achievements, 39, 41-42, 44-45, 52
US environment, 24, 37, 182-185, 455-472
Technology transfer, 10 n.9, 180-181, 392, 479
Telecommunications, 202, 209, 453, 456, 462
Telecommuting, 202
Telephones, 60, 63, 71, 207
Teller, Edward, 35
Terrorism, 25, 33-36, 37, 66, 82, 163, 220, 385, 388, 474, 477, 481, 483, 485, 491
Texas, AP Incentive Program, 127, 130-131, 133
Thailand, 99
Third International Mathematics and Science Study, 306-311
Thomson Venture Economics, 86
Timken, Henry, 35
Timken Company, 35
Trade, 456
export controls on technology, 10, 34-36, 105, 180-181, 388, 391, 474, 485
free trade policy, 28, 36, 212
US deficit in high-technology
products, 14, 77, 209, 218, 220, 462-463
Trade Adjustment Assistance program, 457, 468
Transistor, 44, 83, 157
Transportation
equipment manufacturing, 86
systems, 60, 62, 63, 156
Treasury Borrowing Committee, 461
Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study, 95, 130-131, 132
Tuberculosis (TB), 43
Tunisia, 311
U
Undergraduate education in science and mathematics
admission criteria, 102, 322, 347
community colleges, 346, 347-348
degrees awarded, 16, 98, 99-101, 198, 216, 217, 329, 343, 345, 346
distribution of institutions by sector, 359
enrollment trends, 163, 164, 165, 360
incentives, 340-341
innovative programs, 117-119
international comparison, 16, 98, 99, 163, 165, 198, 216, 217, 342
internships, 346, 348
introductory/transitional science courses, 102-103, 328, 347-348
learning environment, 330-331, 339
low-income students, 167-168, 305, 323, 326, 328, 376
mentoring, 327, 339-340
minorities (underrepresented), 99, 117, 118, 166-167, 328, 341, 343, 344, 345, 346, 348
quality of, 371
recommended federal actions, 256, 345-346, 348
retention/attrition rates, 16, 98-99, 117, 327, 328, 329-330, 336, 371
scholarships and loans for US citizens, 6, 9, 165-168, 169, 305, 323, 326, 340-341, 346, 348, 485, 509
student interest in careers, 98-104
for teachers, 5, 115-119, 346-347
technology component, 375
trends, 343, 345
women, 99, 166, 328, 341, 343, 344, 345, 346, 348
Undergraduate Scholar Awards in Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (USA-STEM) program, 165-168
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Union College, 120 n.19
United Kingdom (UK)
degrees in science or engineering, 99, 100, 165
disciplinary strengths, 76
doctoral production, 387, 388
economic competitiveness, 38, 68, 206
graduate education, 79, 82, 387
Highly Skilled Migrant Programme (HSMP), 82, 178, 179, 385, 391, 393, 394, 396
Science and Engineering Graduate Scheme, 396
spending on R&D, 72
tax incentives for R&D, 196
test scores, 308-311
US R&D in, 86, 196
workforce shortages, 396 n.43
working-age population, 212
University of California
California Teach program, 5, 117-118
College Prep program, 127
University of Maryland Baltimore County, 469
University of Minnesota, 120 n.19
University of Pennsylvania, 6, 125-126
University of Tennessee, 120 n.19
University of Texas at Austin, 117
US businesses.
See also Corporate R&D
adaptation to technological change, 172-173
continuing education for employees, 172-173, 467, 485, 510
doctoral employment, 83, 84
internal control reports, 461
networking by international researchers, 176-177
offshore outsourcing, 1, 14, 23, 26-30, 73, 88
overseas R&D, 86, 174, 215, 220
stock options for employees, 461
summer institutes for teachers, 120-121
tax policies, 172-173, 197, 200, 220
US Chamber of Commerce, 142
US competitiveness in science and technology
advantages of US model, 70-71
advisory committees, 432, 442-443
aging of population and, 213-214
alternative viewpoints, 24, 73
applied research, 68
baseline scenario, 214-219
basic research, 68
benchmarking of US research fields, 409, 444, 445-446, 447
comparative economics, 14-15
corporate R&D and, 83-89, 93, 194, 440
critical technologies, 52, 444, 445, 446-447
data collection on research and
innovation, 444, 445, 452-454
Dell model, 460
disciplinary strengths, 76
doctoral production, 70, 72, 78, 79-81, 83, 84, 205, 216, 217
economic performance, 14-18, 68
educational challenges, 94-104
environment for discovery and, 182-185, 455-472
federal laboratory mission and, 71, 92-94
GDP share of R&D, 84, 85, 91, 205
graduate education, 16, 70, 72, 76, 78-83, 102, 216-217, 342, 350, 445
higher education and training, 16, 70, 205, 217, 386-387
highly skilled workers, 88-89, 178, 205, 216-219
indicators, 14-17
information technology and, 15, 201, 202, 205
international students, 325, 386-387
internationally coauthored articles, 75
K–12 performance, 15-16, 30-31, 94-98, 303, 306-311, 322
location of R&D and, 194
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market dynamics and, 185, 456, 459-461
market share for technology, 77, 209, 217-219
national security and, 104-105
offshore outsourcing of jobs and, 1-2, 14, 88
optimistic scenario, 221-222
patent applications, 75, 215
perspectives, 17
pessimistic scenario, 219-221
public investments and, 72, 89-92, 399
publication volume and frequency, 70, 72, 74, 75, 77-78, 205, 215
R&D spending, 16-17, 72-73, 74, 137, 205, 208, 215, 409-411, 412
ranking globally, 205, 206
research institutions, 70, 72
scenarios, 214-222
software services exports, 76-77
trade deficit, 14, 77, 209, 218, 220, 462-463
undergraduate education, 98-102, 342
US Department of Agriculture, 89, 146, 402, 406, 475, 489
US Department of Commerce, 34, 146, 180, 402, 445, 479, 480, 489
US Department of Defense (DOD)
applied research, 486, 487
assessment of critical technologies, 450
basic research, 7, 89, 90, 92, 137, 140, 141, 143, 150, 151, 402, 426, 431, 484, 486, 487
budget for R&D, 142, 143, 150, 406, 411, 484, 486, 488, 489
contractors, 490, 491
CRADAs, 440
Early Career Scientist and Engineer Award, 145, 146
Fast Track, 434
industry consortia, 436
National Defense Education Act, 67, 494-499
Navy Young Investigator Program, 145
Office of Defense Programs, 144
Quadrennial Defense Review (QDR), 486-487
spending trends for R&D, 407, 487
workforce demand and supply, 169, 481, 494-496, 497, 499
US Department of Education Graduate Assistance in Areas of National Need program, 170
US Department of Energy (DOE)
Advanced Research Projects Agency-Energy (ARPA-E), 8, 152-158, 509
basic and applied research, 142, 153, 156
budget for R&D, 411, 484, 488, 489
CRADAs, 440
early-researcher grants, 7, 143, 146
laboratories, 92, 93, 123-124, 147, 156, 481-482, 493
Office of Science, 89, 123-124, 147, 153
physical science research, 153
research centers, 8, 438
spending for R&D, 402, 406
Task Force on the Future of Science Programs, 156
teacher professional development program, 123-124
US Department of Health and Human Services, 402, 439, 440, 475, 489
US Department of Homeland Security, 25, 141, 402, 409, 481
US Department of State, 34, 180 n.21, 392
US Department of the Interior, 402
US Department of Transportation, 402, 438, 489
US Department of Veterans Affairs, 146, 402
US economy
aging of population and, 212-214, 219-220
alternative viewpoint, 184-185
capital and, 155
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competitiveness indicators, 14
energy issues, 65, 154, 155
foreign direct investment in US, 207-208, 218, 220
GDP trends, 47, 65, 184, 205
high-technology bubble, 29, 164, 198, 200
higher education and, 358-359
immigrant contributions, 35, 176-177
inflation, 48
information technology and, 183, 205
labor issues, 28, 155, 211-212
offshoring and, 28
oil shocks, 155, 183
per capita income, 1 n.1, 73, 184, 204, 218
productivity growth, 1, 183-184, 205, 206, 459, 460
public concerns, 36-37
R&D investments and, 47-49, 218
regional economic development programs, 458, 471
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), 402, 475, 489
US Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 190, 191
US Geological Survey, 64
US Munitions List, 180 n.21, 479 n.9
US Patent and Trademark Office cost of reforms, 510
data exclusivity laws, 11, 186, 190-192, 456
first-inventor-to-file system, 11, 186, 187-188, 192, 455, 464
open review system, 188, 456, 465
recommended reforms, 185-186, 456-457, 464-465
research exemptions from
infringement liability, 11, 186, 188-190, 457, 464
resource allocation for, 11, 186, 187, 456, 465
US population
aging of, 212-214, 219-220
growth projections, 14, 362
US Senate Committee on Armed Services, 140
US Steel, 35
UTeach, 5, 117, 118, 119
V
Visa policies.
See Immigration policy
W
Wages
domestic, 15, 28-29
education level and, 29
foreign, 24, 29, 73, 88
highly skilled workers, 28-29, 88, 210, 218
Washington State
Assessment of Student Learning (WASL), 122
Leadership and Assistance for Science Education Reform (LASER), 122
Water
quality, 51, 57
supply and distribution, 44, 61
Weather prediction technologies, 64, 140
Westinghouse, George, 51
Wolf, Frank, 142
Womack, Farris, 162
Women in science and technology
graduate school, 102, 328, 349, 351, 379
influence on innovation, 417
recruiting and retaining, 389
undergraduate school, 99, 166, 328, 341, 343, 344, 346, 348
workforce, 343
Workforce.
See also Employment;
Highly skilled workers
aging of population and, 212-214
international comparisons, 212
shortfalls in investments in, 30-33
structural changes in, 42
World Economic Forum, 205
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World Trade Organization, 206, 463
World War II, 1, 14, 32, 35, 37, 39, 66, 68, 70, 83, 106, 204, 205, 212, 378, 386, 455, 462, 485
World Wide Web, 44, 71
WTEC, Inc., 445
Wulf, Wm. A., 182, 458
X
Xerox PARC, 32, 333, 335
Y
Yahoo, 207
