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Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads (2005)

Chapter: Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Appendix B
Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography

Laurie Carr

TerraSystems Research

MAY 2003

INTRODUCTION

The following is an annotated bibliography of road effects on ecological conditions, with a special emphasis on spatial scale. Only studies that directly measured the effect of roads on the surrounding environment were included. References were organized into two main categories, abiotic and biotic consequences. Within abiotic consequences, the effects of roads on hydrology, geomorphology, natural disturbances, and the effects of road chemicals on ecosystems are included. The biotic consequences category is further divided into three subcategories, genetic consequences, plant and wildlife population consequences and ecosystem consequences. Within each subcategory the effects of roads on structure, function and composition are included.

Every aspect of roads has some interaction with the surrounding environment, from road construction to maintenance. However, this list focuses on the effects generated from the presence and use of the road itself. With the exception of culverts, the impacts of road structures such as bridges or roadside lamps are not included. The reciprocal effects of the environment on roads are also not included.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×

For all ecological effects, references are organized by the scale of the study. Three scales were used: single segment, intermediate—political/ecological, and national. Single segment refers to studies that examine the impacts of a single road on an ecosystem. In this case, several roads may be involved in the study; however, the results do not address the cumulative effects of these roads. For example, the effect of road pollution on insect populations living adjacent to a road, or the barrier effect of a road on a species' movement would be classified as “single segment.” Intermediate scale studies examine the cumulative effect of roads on a region. In other words, the combined effect of more than one road determines the results of the study. For example, the effect of several roads on one lake, range expansion by using roads as a dispersal corridor, or genetic isolation of a population surrounded by more than one road would be classified as intermediate. The boundary of a region is either politically (e.g., state of Florida, national park) or ecologically determined (e.g., a watershed, an animal’s home range). National scale studies are very rare and they cover the effects of roads over an entire country.

The format for the bibliography is as follows:

Sample Section

Summary of Ecological Effects

A paragraph is written here explaining the ecological effects for the section. Ecological effects are italicized in paragraph.

Ecological effect:


a. Single segment

  • Reference 1

  • Reference 2

  • Etc.

b. Intermediate—-political/ecological

  • Reference 1

  • Reference 2

  • Etc.

c. National

  • Reference 1

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×
  • Reference 2

  • Etc.

ABIOTIC CONSEQUENCES OF THE ECOLOGICAL EFFECT OF ROADS

Hydrology and Geomorphology

Summary of Ecological Effects

Roads have an impervious surface that collects and reroutes precipitation along its length or along roadside ditches. The temporary addition of waterflows from the road network affects flooding, groundwater supplies and channel morphology of stream networks. For logging roads specifically, precipitation and vehicular use results in sediment production. Sediment is carried into the watershed by wind or water and often contains chemicals. Roads that transect waterbodies cause changes in waterflows by restricting circulation. Roads can also become barriers to surface drainage when they are elevated compared to the landscape.

Stream Networks

a. Single segment

  • Almost all streams and intermittent channels crossed by a highway were channelized. Distance from 30 m to 400 m upslope and from 30 m to 500 m downslope of the road. Wetland drainage effects extended outward from the road for distances varying from 50 m to 500 m (Forman and Deblinger 2000).

b. Intermediate—political/ecological

  • When hard surface (road, buildings, parking areas) reaches 30-40% of the area about 30% of precipitation water becomes surface runoff, at 80-90% more than 55% of water becomes runoff. As a result, groundwater supplies may not be fully recharged, streams tend to degrade, and flooding often increases (Schueler 1995).

  • Once hard-surface coverage exceeds 25%, streams in area tend to be degraded, as characterized by unstable channel morphology, polluted water, and highly altered or impoverished fish communities. In Seattle (USA) region, a road density of 5 km/km2 (8 mi/mi2) corre-

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×

sponded to a hard-surface cover of about 20% in the watershed. Hard-surface model suggests stream networks are “impacted” at levels of hard surface as low as 10% coverage. (Center for Watershed Protection 1998).

  • Results from a conceptual model of interactions between road networks and stream networks show that road networks appear to affect floods and debris flows, thus modifying disturbance patch dynamics in stream and riparian networks in mountain landscapes (Jones et al. 2000).

  • Road effects on stream networks result in changes in watershed processes far removed from the site. Roads can increase drainage density by increasing waterflow from an impervious surface, and diverting subsurface water to surface and roadside ditches. This can result in floods, and alter aquatic and riparian ecological conditions, including fish populations in the lower parts of the stream systems (Eaglin and Hubert 1993).

  • Stormwater flows along roads or ditches often effectively create new segments connected to the natural stream network. In a mountain forestry case approximately 57% of the road network functioned as an extension of the stream network, thereby increasing drainage density by 21% to 50% (Wemple, et al. 1996).

  • Water from roadside ditches may be routed to streams, thus effectively increasing the density of stream channels in a watershed. A model predicted increases in the mean annual flood due to forest roads ranged from 2.2% to 9.5% (La March and Lettenmaier 2001).

c. National

  • No citations

Sediment Production

a. Single segment

  • Inventories of almost 500 km of forest roads in several catchments indicate that untreated roads produced 1500 to 4700 m3 of sediment per kilometer of road length (Madej 2001).

b. Intermediate—political/ecological

  • Lake Tahoe basin receives chemically laden sediment-bearing road runoff from a highly disturbed, road-laced watershed. Erosion along unpaved timber-harvesting roads caused by vehicular passage leads to sediment transported by wind or water (Zeigler et al. 2001).

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×
  • The greatest accumulation of fine sediments in streambeds was associated with logging road areas that exceeded 2.5% of the total basin area. Total road lengths of 2.5 km/km2 of watershed basin produced sediment > 4 times natural rate (Cedarholm et al. 1981)

  • A study of a forest road network in the western Cascade Range, Oregon found that debris slides from mobilized road fills were the dominant process of sediment production from roads. Overall, this study indicated that the nature of geomorphic processes influenced by roads is strongly conditioned by road location and construction practices, basin geology and storm characteristics (Wemple 2001).

c. National

  • No citations

Changes in Waterflow

a. Single segment

  • Restricted tidal flow in salt marsh of northern Massachusetts resulted in difference in salinity and hence vegetation of each side of culverts. Invasion of freshwater common reed (Phragmites communis) occurred in the side of low salinity (Massachusetts Executive Office of Environmental Affairs 1995).

  • A causeway bisecting the Great Salt Lake in Utah altered circulation, resulting in changes in salt concentration between the two sides of the lake (Loving et al. 2000).

  • A major effect of permanent roads in the artic is the blockage of surface drainage during spring snowmelt, thereby allowing water to accumulate beside a road in the relatively flat terrain. This can result in flooded areas or impoundments and sometimes road washouts (Walker et al. 1987).

b. Intermediate—political/ecological

  • Four causeways transect an estuary of Florida's Tampa Bay. This has altered circulation of the bay resulting in changes in contaminant and sediment transportation (Goodwin 1987).

c. National

  • No citations

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×

Chemical Characteristics

Summary of Ecological Effects

Major sources of roadside pollution are vehicles, roads and bridges, and dry and wet (dust and rain) atmospheric deposition. Less frequent sources are accidental spills of oil, gasoline, and industrial chemicals. The majority of roadside chemicals come from vehicles (83%), 22% come from sanding and de-icing agents, 17% from roadbed and road surface wear, and 13% from herbicide and pesticide use. These figures do not include heavy metals and other chemicals that leach from bridges into streams and other water bodies (Federal Highway Administration 1996, Kobringer 1984).

Vehicular chemical pollutants include mineral nutrients (e.g. nitrogen and phosphorus), heavy metals (e.g. zinc and lead) and organic compounds (petroleum products). Of all the heavy metals, lead is the most studied ecologically. Lead was removed from gasoline in the mid-80’s in North America, and lead levels in plants and animals are now relatively low (Forman, et al. 2003). The actual levels of heavy metals other than lead (Cadmium, copper, zinc, nickel, mercury and chromium) along roads, and their ecological effects remains poorly understood (Forman, et al. 2003). De-icing salt (sodium chloride) is applied on roads for snow and ice. Literature on the contamination of surface water and groundwater from road-salt is voluminous. Only a few examples are presented in this table.

Mineral Nutrients

a. Single segment

  • The largest source of phosphorus entering Lake Chocorua in New Hampshire was runoff from a multilane highway that passed near the eastern shoreline (Schloss 2002).

  • Chemical nitrogen (from vehicle exhaust) enrichment of roadside soil favours few dominant flowering plants at the expense of more sensitive conifers, ferns, mosses, fungi, algae, and lichens in heathlands. This effect is higher along multilane highways compared to smaller roads (Angold 1997).

  • Nitrogen (nitrogen oxides from traffic) caused increased growth in plant species in healthland communities in southern England.

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×

Consequently species composition changed. Effects were measured up to 200 m (656 ft) from road (Angold 1992).

b. Intermediate—political/ecological

  • No citations

c. National

  • No citations

Heavy Metals

a. Single segment

  • Increased levels of toxic heavy metals have been found up to 50 or 100 m (165 to 330 ft) of highways in the air, soil and plants (Ministry of Transport 1994b).

  • Manganese concentrations in the soil along interstate highways in Utah are 100 times higher than historic levels. Roadside aquatic plants were sensitive bio-indicators of manganese contamination (Lytle et al. 1995).

  • Some plants may have enhanced root growth as a result of soil contamination from roadside dust carrying trace metals (Wong et al. 1984).

  • Combustion gases may cause reductions in species richness in arthropods, some groups flourished in the environment polluted by combustion gases. (Przybylski 1979).

  • Overall lead levels were low in insects but high in earthworms, especially near highways (Marino et al. 1992).

  • Early studies suggest that the abundance and diversity of invertebrates do not decline with increasing amount of metal pollution in roadside habitats (Muskett and Jones 1980).

  • Lead contamination of insects near a highway in Kansas was more than 3 times level of those far from a road. Meadowlarks did not follow this trend reflecting little exposure to lead contaminated insects (Udevitz et al. 1980).

  • Lead concentrations in little brown bats, short-tailed shrews, and meadow voles adjacent to a highway are high enough to cause mortality in domestic animals. (Clark 1979).

  • Lead in roadside median strips of a highway was not considered a threat to adult ground-foraging songbirds (Grue et al. 1986).

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×

b. Intermediate—political/ecological

  • No citations

c. National

  • No citations

Organic

a. Single segment

  • Green treefrog (Hyla cinerea) tadpole growth and metamorphosis was negatively associated with presence of petroleum contamination of freshwater, such as would occur from runoff (Mahaney 1994).

b. Intermediate—political/ecological

  • No citations

c. National

  • No citations

De-icing Salt

a. Single segment

  • Road-salt (CaCl) on an unpaved forest road inhibited crossing of the road by salamanders. (Demaynadier and Hunter 1995).

  • Survivorship of salamander species was lower in roadside pools that were heavily contaminated by de-icing salts. (Turtle 2000).

  • A highway that crosses the eastern portion of the Hubbard Brook Valley watershed has increased sodium and chloride concentrations in Mirror Lake (Likens et al. 1977).

  • The gradual build-up of salt in soil and lowered moisture conditions can make it more difficult to maintain natural vegetation along roads (Thompson and Rutter 1986).

  • Chloride concentrations in streams downstream from a salted highway were 31 times that upstream from the highway (Demers and Richard 1990.).

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×

b. Intermediate—political/ecological

  • De-icing salt used in the Rochester, New York, area dissolved and entered Lake Ontario via storm water drainage. This caused increased salinity of Irondequoit Bay to the extent that it prevented vertical mixing of the bay water in spring (Bubeck et al. 1971).

  • Road salting caused changes in salt concentration of a small meromictic lake. This weakened the lake's meromictic (chemical-dependent) stability and had implications for primary productivity of the lake (Kjensmo 1997).

c. National

  • No citations

Natural Disturbance

Summary of Ecological Effects

Logging and mountain roads are susceptible for creating landslides due to unstable soil, steep slopes and high road densities (Havlick 2002). Roads can increase water discharge rates in a watershed increasing the potential for landslides.

Landslides

a. Single segment

  • No citations

b. Intermediate—political/ecological

  • Eighty-eight percent of landslides in Boise and Clearwater national forests in Idaho were road related. Most landslides on Idaho’s South Fork of the Salmon River were also road related (Megahan 1980).

  • After the 1964 flood in the Pacific Northwest, landslide frequency due to forest roads was up to 30 times the rates in unmanaged forested areas (Swanson and Dryness 1975).

c. National

  • No citations

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×

GENETIC CONSEQUENCES OF THE ECOLOGICAL EFFECT OF ROADS

Structure

Summary of Ecological Effects

Roads can act as a barrier to movement through road-kill and behavioralioural road avoidance. As barriers, roads subdivide continuous populations and reduce gene flow between sub-populations. The result is isolated and smaller populations. Genetic consequences for larger species with smaller population sizes or for endangered species with low dispersal abilities are thought to be greater (Gerlach and Musolf 2000) but have not been investigated.

Barrier to Movement

a. Single segment

  • A recent highway, at least 25 yrs old, was shown to have an effect on the genetic sub-structuring of bank vole (Clethrionomys glareolus) populations due to reduced gene flow. Small population size, a country road, and a railway did not appear to affect genetic structure (Gerlach and Musolf 2000).

b. Intermediate—-political/ecological

  • Common frog (Rana temporaria) population surrounded by roads, a highway and a railway had reduced average amount of heterozygosity (genetic variation) and genetic polymorphism (diversity of forms) (Reh and Seitz 1990).

c. National

  • No citations

Function

Summary of Ecological Effects

Isolated populations have a lower chance of survival without the demographic and genetic input of immigrants, and of recolonization after

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×

extinction (Lande 1988). Low gene flow in isolated populations has the negative result of increased inbreeding (weak offspring) and decreased fecundity therefore increasing the probability of extinction (Hartl et al. 1992 as cited in Gerlach and Musolf 2000). Little is known on the long-term ecological effects of roads on mammalian speciation through isolation (Baker 1998).

Isolated Populations

a. Single segment

  • No citations

b. Intermediate—-political/ecological

  • No citations

c. National

  • No citations

Composition

Summary of Ecological Effects

Roads have a filtering effect, in that different species or segments of a population may interact distinctively in relation to roads. This can result in natural selection of specific genes.

Filtering Effect

a. Single segment

  • Selection for early flowering and salt tolerance has developed in populations of Anthoxanthum odoratum L., growing along a roadside and in adjacent pastures, in less than 40 years (Kiang 1982).

  • Genetic immunity to car pollution has selected for micropopulations of Tenebrionidae that have lived along roadsides for many generations. Beetle larvae that did not posses the immunity perished at instar II due to pollution exposure (Minoranskii and Kuzina 1984).

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×

b. Intermediate—-political/ecological

  • No citations

c. National

  • No citations

CONSEQUENCES OF THE ECOLOGICAL EFFECT OF ROADS ON SPECIES AND POPULATIONS

Structure

Summary of Ecological Effects

Wildlife-road interactions (avoidance, mortality, use of roadside habitats) may be regulated by the age or sex of the individual. Differences in mortality and use of the landscape can result in shifts in wildlife population structure. No studies were found on plant population structure as influenced by roads.

Wildlife Population Structure

a. Single segment

  • Roadside territories are sinks for Florida scrub jays (Aphelocoma coeulescens) populations. Vehicular mortality along a two-lane highway was significantly higher for new immigrants, the rate dropped after 3 years of living in a road territory. Fledglings also experienced significantly higher mortality compared to adults (Mumme et al. 2000).

  • Road mortality is indicated in a shift in age structure toward younger age classes for painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) populations. A higher percentage of adult turtles were found farther from a segment of Route 93 adjacent to the Ninepipe National Wildlife Refuge in Mission Valley, Montana (Fowle 1990).

  • The four-lane, divided Trans-Canada Highway segment within Banff National Park in Alberta, served as a complete barrier against the movement of adult female bears (Ursus arctos) and as a partial filter-barrier for adult males (Gibeau 2000).

  • Radio-tracking showed that female stoats inhabiting beech forests avoided the road in study area but males preferred it (Murphy and Dowding 1994).

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×

b. Intermediate—-political/ecological

  • No citations

c. National

  • No citations

Function

Summary of Ecological Effects

Roads and roadside vegetation increase the diversity of habitats in the landscape by providing additional habitat sources. Some species are able to take advantage of the foraging and habitat opportunities presented by roads. In some managed landscapes, roadsides have been left as vestigial strips of original habitat. These vegetated strips, or road reserves, become refuges for animal species that depend on natural communities that have been reduced in the landscape. The benefits provided by roads must however, be weighed against the increased probability of those species incurring vehicular collisions or hunting. On the other hand, roadsides and adjacent land have a reduced habitat quality for many species due to disturbance from traffic presence and noise.

Roads and roadsides can contribute to the spread of wildlife and plants by providing suitable habitat and a highly connected dispersal corridor. While this connectivity has the potential to be a dispersal corridor for wildlife, there is little existing evidence for that function at the population level (Forman et al. 2003).

Roads can also present as a complete or partial movement barrier to wildlife, through behavioral avoidance or a high mortality rate. Species that exhibit a behavioral avoidance of roads are less likely to incur mortality. However they are vulnerable to a loss of landscape connectivity especially if they have multiple resource needs or large territories. Road avoidance also results in the alteration of habitat use such that the distribution of some species conforms to the presence of roads.

Additional Habitat

a. Single segment

  • An extensive study along interstate highways in the U.S. showed that grassland and several generalist small mammal species were

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×

more abundant on verge habitat than on adjacent habitat (Adams and Geis 1983).

  • In median strips, small mammal density tended to be highest where unmowed grassy roadsides bordered wooded strips (Adams 1984).

  • At six interchanges along Highway 417 in Ottawa, Canada, the density of woodchucks (Marmota monax) per hectare exceeded any density previously reported for this species in any habitat (Woodard 1990).

  • Road verges with hedges and tall grass provide habitat for vole and mice species (Bellamy et al. 2000).

  • The abundance of the generalist Melomys cervinipes increased near a rainforest road, while Rattus sp. decreased. Rattus sp. prefer undisturbed habitat (Goosem 2000).

  • White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) graze in road rights-of-way in forested habitat (Carbaugh et al. 1975).

  • Raptors have higher use of roadsides compared to adjacent habitat because of the greater availability of perch sites and wide roadsides (Meunier et al. 2000).

  • Roadside ditches act as additional vernal pool habitats for aquatic invertebrates in the Central Valley of California (Koford 1993).

  • Road reserves provide habitat for uncommon native species when juxtaposed in disturbed landscapes. Roadsides of one multilane highway in the Netherlands were composed of 20% of uncommon species. In this case, roadsides represented more suitable habitat then the surrounding landscape (Ministry of Transport 2000, Sykora et al. 1993).

  • Numbers of nests and grassland passerine species increased with roadside width along rural interstate (four-lane) and secondary rights-of-way in central Illinois. Expansion of row-crop farming means roadsides critical for sustaining birds that nest in edges and ecotones (Warner 1992).

  • Species richness and abundance of habitat-sensitive butterflies increased on roadsides restored to native prairie vegetation compared to grassy and weedy roadsides (Ries et al. 2001).

b. Intermediate—-political/ecological

  • Raven (Corvus corax) numbers showed a positive relationship with increasing number of linear rights-of-way which ran in parallel. Possible reasons are increase in edge habitat and carrion along road (Knight et al. 1995).

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×

c. National

  • A survey of 212, 220 ha of roadside habitat in the U.K. found that road verges provided habitat for a large portion of the native plants, mammals, reptile and invertebrates. A number of nationally rare plant species also depended on roadside habitats for survival. Verges were mostly grassland (Way 1977).

Reduced Habitat Quality

a. Single segment

  • A series of seminal papers that showed that of 43 species of woodland breeding birds, 26 species (60%) showed reduced densities near highways. Traffic noise explained the most variation in bird density in relation to roads in a regression model. (Reijnen and Foppen 1994). This effect also occurred for grassland birds (Reijnen et al. 1996), and is more important in years with a low overall population size (Reijnen and Foppen 1995).

  • High traffic volume had significant effects on presence and breeding of grassland birds in roadsides in an outer suburban landscape of Massachusetts. Lower traffic volumes had no effect (Forman et al. 2002).

  • Dutch studies of four bird species in open grasslands found the traffic disturbance effect on population density extended a further distance next to a busy highway compared to a rural road (van der Zande et al. 1980).

  • Dispersal of breeding male willow warblers (Phylloscopus trochilus) was actively directed away from road, constituting an “escape” from low quality roadside habitat (Foppen and Reijnen 1994).

  • Population density of the horned lark (Eremophila alpestris) increased with distance from roads in an agricultural landscape (Clark and Karr 1979).

  • Flocks of pink-footed geese (Anser brachyrhynchus) and graylag geese (A. Anser) were not found within 100 m (328 ft) of the nearest road. Geese also never visited fields with centers closer than 100 m from roads (Keller 1991).

  • Ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapillus) territory size decreased with distant from unpaved roads in a forested region in Vermont. Habitat quality for ovenbirds may be lower within 150 m (492 ft) of roads, thus requiring a larger area for foraging, and possibly reducing reproductive success (Ortega and Capen 1999).

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×
  • In northern Maine total population of breeding birds near a highway was not significantly different than at a greater distance. However, the total population was less than half as equal area of forest habitat and population densities were 79% of those in forest habitat (Ferris 1979).

  • Proximity of Florida scrub jay territories to paved road with approximately 500-750 vehicles per day had no effect on nesting success (Beatley 2000).

b. Intermediate—-political/ecological

  • Analysis of the total effect of The Netherlands’s most dense network of main roads on ‘meadow birds’ shows a possible population decrease of 16%. Population decrease was attributed to reduced habitat quality and traffic noise in previous studies (Reijnen et al. 1997).

c. National

  • No citations

Dispersal Corridor

a. Single segment

  • Roadside vole species (Microtus) that could not move through villages and towns was able to expand its range 90 km (56 mi) along an Illinois multilane highway with continuous vegetation (Getz et al. 1978).

  • Large mammals such as wolves and lynx have been noted following roads and trails that have little human travel (Thurber et al. 1994).

  • Arthropods (carabid beetles and lycosid spiders) exhibited longitudinal movements along a roadside and reduced crossing rates for paved and gravel roads (Mader 1990, Vermeulen 1994).

b. Intermediate—-political/ecological

  • Pocket gophers (Thomomys bottae) were able to extend their range along roadside verges that provided suitable habitat (Huey 1941).

  • Grassland plants use road and railway corridors for dispersal (Tikka et al. 2001).

  • Ravens feeding on road-killed animals along roadsides move through landscape (Knight and Kawashima 1993).

  • Cane toads (Bufo marinus), an introduced species in Australia, use roads as dispersal corridors, especially in dense vegetation. This be-

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×

havior allowed the toads to extend their range into otherwise inaccessible areas (Seabrook and Dettmann 1996).

  • In North Dakota, the harvester ant (Pogonomyrex occidentalis) has expanded its range several kilometers in 12 years, by moving along roadsides (Demers 1993).

  • Study in Kakadu National Park, Australia suggests that tourist vehicles were partly responsible for the spread of weed species in the park (Lonsdale and Lane 1994).

  • Roadside ditches are a method of dispersal for water-resistant seeds. An escaped ornamental, purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) has invaded roadsides in New York State and formed conspicuous monocultures along ditches and culverts (Wilcox 1989).

c. National

  • No citations

Movement Barrier

a. Single segment

  • Small mammal crossing seems to be highly dependent of road width. Small mammals were found to be reluctant to cross roads greater than 20 m (66 ft) (Oxley et al. 1974, Richardson et al. 1997). This also holds true for Rattus sp. on rainforest roads, but only during breeding season (Goosem 2001). Road crossings by small ground mammals in Australia were inversely related to road width (Barnett et al. 1978). In Kansas, small road clearances less than 3 m (10 ft) have been shown to effect small mammals such as voles and rats (Swihart and Slade 1984).

  • Restricted movements of small mammals across roads are probably due to behavior rather than an inability to cross the road. A forest road did not affect movement of yellow-necked mice (Apodemus flavicollis), but restricted that of bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) (Bakowski and Kozakiewicz 1988). An experimental study showed rodents in the Mojave Desert hesitate to cross roads even though they may travel long distances. (Garland and Bradley 1984) Rodents would cross highways in southwestern Texas when the habitats on opposing sides were similar (Kozel and Fleharty 1979).

  • In Ontario, movements of mice across a lightly traveled road of 6-15 m (20-49 ft) wide had a probability of less than 10% compared to movements in the adjacent habitats (Merriam et al. 1989).

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×
  • Mobility diagrams show significant isolation effects of roads on populations of forest-dwelling mice (Apodemus flavicollis) and carabid beetles, neither of which crossed highways or forest roads (Mader 1984).

  • While a road inhibited movements of small rainforest mammals, genetic isolation of populations separated by a road less than 12 m wide is slight (Burnett 1992).

  • Mixed-species flocks use the vegetation along the edges of a narrow, rarely used road through otherwise undisturbed Amazonian forest road, but because they are unwilling to cross the open area, the road becomes a flock territory boundary (Develey and Stouffer 2001).

  • Road crossings may act as barriers to fish migration. The movement of fish through crossings was inversely proportional to the water velocity (Warren and Pardew 1998).

  • Steep slopes and low roughness coefficients of culverts frequently cause high water velocities that have prevented passage of Arctic grayling, long-nose suckers, northern pike, salmon and trout (Derksen 1980, Kay and Lewis 1970, as cited in Belford and Gould 1989) (Belford and Gould 1989).

  • Salamander abundance was 2.3 times higher at forest interior vs. roadside sites. A large road was a partial barrier depending on type of movement (natal dispersal, migratory, home-range) (Demaynadier and Hunter 2000).

  • Road-forest edges significantly hindered amphibian movements in a forest tract in southern Connecticut (Gibbs 1998).

  • Arthropods (carabid beetles and lycosid spiders) exhibited longitudinal movements along the roadside and reduced crossing rates for paved and gravel roads (Mader et al. 1990).

  • Bumblebees (Cephalanthus occidentalis L.) showed high site fidelity and only rarely crossed roads or railroads (Bhattacharya et al. 2003).

  • Mark-recapture study showed almost no land snails (Arianta arbustorum) crossed road in central Sweden. Results suggest that snail populations separated by paved roads with high traffic densities may be isolated from each other. (Baur and Baur 1990).

b. Intermediate—-political/ecological

  • Caribou (Rangifer tarandus) density is inversely related to road density. At 0.3 km/km2 (0.5 mi/mi2), the population declined by 63%. At 0.9 km/km2 (1.4 mi/mi2), it was 86% lower. Areas with over

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×

0.9 km/km2 of road length have no cow-calf pairs, and maternal females show a displacement of 4 km (2.5 mi) away from roads (Nellemann and Cameron 1996). The greatest avoidance zone or effect-distance reported is 5 km (3 mi) for caribou (Nellemann and Cameron 1998).

  • An increase in the number of roads and railways and traffic volume has subdivided the original caribou population of Scandinavia into 26 separate herds. Areas with 5 km (3 mi) of roads and power lines are essentially avoided. Due to continued development the survival of these populations is in doubt (Nellemanna et al. 2001).

  • Cumulative effect of parallel linear developments may affect movement of caribou. They were found to cross a road and a control area with similar frequency, but when a pipeline ran parallel to a road, crossing frequencies dropped significantly (Curatolo and Murphy 1986).

c. National

  • No citations

Distribution

a. Single segment

  • Deer and elk avoid roads in winter ranges in Colorado, particularly areas within 200 m of a road (Rost and Bailey 1979).

  • Grizzly and black bears (U. americanus) used habitat < 1 km from a road or trail less than expected in the Cabinet Mountains, Montana (Kasworm and Manley 1990).

b. Intermediate—-political/ecological

  • Data indicates an increased survival rate, a reduction in movements, and home range size of Roosevelt elk (C. elaphus roosevelti) during a period of limited vehicular access (Cole et al. 1997).

  • As road density increases from 2 to 3 mi/mi2 (1.2-1.9 km/km2) to 5 to 6 mi/mi2 (3.1-3.7 km/km2), elk use of habitat declines by approximately 50% (Lyon 1983.).

  • Black bears shift the locations of their home ranges when faced with increases in road densities in areas of previously lower road densities. (Brody and Pelton 1989).

  • Grizzly bears in the Swan Mountains of Montana used habitats with lower total road density and avoided buffer areas surrounding roads having >10 vehicles per day (Mace et al. 1996).

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×
  • Road density explains the juxtaposition of home ranges and distribution of bobcats (Felis rufus) in northern Wisconsin (Lovallo and Anderson 1996).

c. National

  • No citations

Composition

Summary of Ecological Effects

Plant species richness in roadsides depends on roadside management (mowing, planting, amount of disturbance and pollution). Plant communities change over time depending on the successional pattern altered by roadside management. Wildlife behavior, road mortality and reaction to pollutants determine wildlife species richness. Road mortality has a dual impact on regional populations through a direct loss of individuals and an indirect decrease in landscape connectivity. Experimentation to separate these two effects has not been conducted and emphasis of road mortality remains on the loss of individuals. Few studies compare the amount of road mortality to other sources of mortality or population size. This results in little being known on the population effects of road mortality.

There is widespread concern over the invasion of non-native plants in roadsides and adjacent landscapes. Roadsides can be ideal habitats for non-native or exotic species. Increased light, soil disturbance, variable soil moisture conditions and dispersal vectors (vehicles, connected habitat) have resulted in an abundance of non-native species in our roadsides. Non-natives are introduced into roadsides via intentional plantings to reduce erosion, from travelers (human and animal) and escaped ornamentals.

Species Richness

a. Single segment

  • Wider, more open unpaved roads tended to produce steeper declines in roadside abundance and richness of macroinvertebrate soil fauna, and leaf-litter depth. Effects persisted up to 100 m into the Cherokee National Forest, USA (Haskell 2000).

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×
  • Mowing twice a year, early and late in the growing season, created highest plant diversity, in wide roadsides beside multilane highways. Mowing once a year either early or late in the season or mowing every other year early in the season resulted in fewer species. The lowest diversity was found with no mowing (Ministry of Transport 1994a).

  • Based on sampling 50 km (31 miles) of roadsides in South Island, New Zealand, total number of non-natives was not significantly different from the road shoulder, to the outer roadside. However, native species diversity increased over a gradient from inner to outer roadside (Ullmann et al. 1998).

b. Intermediate—-political/ecological

  • Significant effects of road density within 2 km (1 mi) of wetlands have been noted for wetland species richness of reptiles, amphibians, birds and plants (Findlay and Houlahan 1997). Although a subsequent study found herptile, vascular plants, and bird species richness in wetlands was more accurately described by road density 30 to 40 years ago (Findlay and Bourdages 2000).

  • Only areas where road density is less than 0.72 km/km2 (1.16 mi/mi2) seem to support vibrant populations of wolves (Canis lupus) in Minnesota (Fuller 1989, Mech et al. 1988), Wisconsin (Mladenoff et al. 1999, Theil 1985), the western part of the Great Lakes region of the USA (Mladenoff et al. 1995), and Ontario (Canada) (Jensen et al. 1986). An exception to the trend is an established wolf population in a fragmented area of Minnesota with a road density of 1.42 km/km2 (2.29 mi/mi2) (Merrill 2000).

  • Paved and unpaved roads and power line rights-of way were examined for their effects on the relative abundance and community composition of forest-nesting birds in southern New Jersey. At a landscape scale, small reductions in forest area because of corridors may be cumulatively significant for forest-interior birds (Rich et al. 1994).

c. National

  • No citations

Road Mortality

a. Single segment

  • Results suggest roads and traffic are likely to reduce hedgehog density by about 30%, which may affect the survival probability of local

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×

populations. Hedgehog population density was estimated at 15 areas near a road (Huijser and Bergers 2000).

  • Road mortality resulting from increase in traffic speed along a road was suspected in the local extinction of eastern quolls and 50% reduction of Tasmanian devils (Jones 2000).

  • Two taxa of special conservation interest, the Mexican rosy boa (Lichanura trivirgata) and the Organ Pipe shovelnosed snake (Chionactis palarostris), appear to be relatively strongly impacted by highway mortality. Estimate close to 4000 snakes killed on a stretch of road (Rosen and Lowe 1994).

  • A study of painted turtles at varying distance from roads found both lower density and higher mortality near roads. A total of 205 painted turtles (Chrysemys picta) were killed along a 7.2 km (4.5 mi) road segment that bisects a series of prairie pothole (Fowle 1990).

  • Road mortality had a significant effect on local densities of amphibians along a two-lane road in Ontario, Canada. The density of frogs and toads in the roadside and adjacent habitat decreased with more traffic and higher road mortality rates (Fahrig et al. 1995).

  • Results estimate that 10% of the adult population of Pelobates fuscus and brown frogs (Rana temporaria and R. arvalis) are killed annually by traffic on a two-lane road in Northern Denmark. Population sizes were estimated for all ponds within 250 m of the road (Hels and Buchwald 2001).

  • Vehicular mortality was insufficient to affect roadside butterfly populations along 12 main roads in the U.K. (Munguira and Thomas 1992).

  • Traffic volume was related to badger (Meles meles) deaths in southwest England. Above a certain level, all high traffic volume roads had 6 times greater mortality then low volume roads. Results suggest high volume roads may discourage badgers crossing roads (Clarke et al. 1998).

b. Intermediate—-political/ecological

  • The number of roads and road density was the strongest determinant in the decline of badgers in the Netherlands (Meles meles), likely due to traffic mortality (Van Der Zee et al. 1992).

  • Vehicular collisions from the roads in a national park in southwestern Spain are one of the largest sources of mortality for Iberian lynx (Lynx pardalis) (Ferreras et al. 1992).

  • Vehicle collisions along the highways and gravel roads in the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge in Alaska are reported as the largest

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×

source of mortality for radio-collared female moose (Alces alces) (Bangs et al. 1989).

  • Road density (corrected for traffic volume) within 0.75 km (0.5 mi) from 109 Dutch moorland pools significantly explained the probability as to whether or not the moor frog were present in a pool (Vos and Chardon 1998).

  • Total traffic volume (dependent on road density) had a significant negative effect on the population density of leopard frogs (Rana pipiens) within a radius of 1.5 km of ponds. Traffic volume had no effect on the less mobile species green frogs (Rana clamitans) (Carr and Fahrig 2001).

  • Results of a spatially explicit individual-based model reveal a much stronger impact of road mortality than the barrier effect on wildlife populations. The influence of traffic mortality is always much more significant when the proportions of individuals avoiding the road and those that are killed on the road (in relation to the number of individuals encountering roads) in the two situations compared are the same. Results were examined for several road network configurations (Jaeger and Fahrig 2001).

c. National

  • No citations

Non-native Plants in Roadsides and Adjacent Landscapes

a. Single segment

  • Nearly every sampling unit along abandoned (low disturbance and light levels), low- and high-use (highest disturbance and light levels) roads in the H.J. Andrews Experimental forest contained at least one exotic plant species. Exotic species were significantly more frequent under high or medium light than under low light conditions. Roads and streams apparently serve as, corridors for dispersal, suitable habitat, and propagule reservoirs (Parendes and Jones 2000).

  • Alien plant species from an old road have spread into disturbed sites in sclerophyll forest communities, Australia. Frequency of plants declined with increasing distance from road and was correlated with the reduction in diffuse light (Amor and Stevens 1976).

  • Introduction of limestone rock material for roadbeds changed the soil attributes of the roadside in a sandy Florida scrub area, which supported non-indigenous species (Greenberg et al. 1997).

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×

b. Intermediate—-political/ecological

  • Transects through 13 of the lower Florida Keys found that areas closest to paved roads, with the largest amount of development within a 150 m radii, had the highest probability of presence of predatory, non-native, red imported fire ants (Solenopsis invicta) (Forysa et al. 2002).

  • Non-native invasive multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora) was planted along highways in Virginia and elsewhere and quickly spread into natural habitats to become a widespread infestation (Stiles 1980).

c. National

  • No citations

CONSEQUENCES OF THE ECOLOGICAL EFFECT OF ROADS ON ECOSYSTEMS

Structure

Summary of Ecological Effects

Although roads are relatively narrow disturbances, they have create a disproportionate amount landscape fragmentation. Roads create an abundance of edge habitat, reducing habitat for organisms adapted to interior conditions. Roads also fragment populations when they become a barrier to wildlife movement.

Fragmentation

a. Single segment

  • No citations

b. Intermediate—-political/ecological

  • Fragmentation was quantified due to roads in 30 areas of a 213-ha section of Medicine Bow-Route National Forest in southeastern Wyoming. Average road density was 2.52 km/km2. Roads created 1.54-1.98 times the edge habitat created by clearcuts and the total landscape area affected was 2.5-3.5 times the actual area occupied by roads (Reed et al. 1996).

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×
  • When stand boundaries were delineated by roads, there was a large increase in small stands with simple shapes, concurrent with a decline in the number of stands > 100 ha. Early-seral forest were in greater proportion adjacent to roads, suggesting effect of roads on landscape structure was somewhat localized (Miller et al. 1996).

  • For eight land cover types in the Northern Great Lakes Region, USA, 5% to 60% of a land cover type was affected by roads, depending on the assumed depth-of-edge influence (DEI). Roads increased number of patches and patch density, and decreased mean patch size and largest patch index (Saunders et al. 2002)

c. National

  • No citations

Function

Summary of Ecological Effects

Pollutants from roads and vehicles can alter ecological processes by weakening defense mechanisms in plants, increasing available nutrients and bio-accumulating in the food chain.

Pollutants

a. Single segment

  • High nitrogen content of roadside vegetation along a busy motorway in the United Kingdom was believed responsible for the rate of increase and the outbreaks in insect populations. Grasshoper density (Chorthippus brunneus) was higher on motorway sites compared to sites away from the motorway (Port and Thompson 1980).

  • De-icing salts may cause physiological stress in roadside trees in Switzerland, making them more susceptible to aphid infestations (Braun and Fluckiger 1984).

  • Salt in roadside soils may increase available nitrogen and some minerals. This is a possible cause for Lolium perenne growing more vigorously in soil from near roads (Spencer and Port 1988).

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×
  • Some invertebrate groups appeared to increase with proximity to certain major roads sampled. Higher levels of lead found in small mammals at the higher trophic level (Goldsmith and Scanlon 1977).

  • Lead levels, and not zinc, were higher in invertebrates in close proximity to a road. However, the levels of heavy metals are too low to be toxic in their animal predators (Wade et al. 1980).

b. Intermediate—-political/ecological

  • No citations

c. National

  • No citations

Composition

Summary of Ecological Effects

Environmental characteristics such as soil moisture, air temperature, soil compaction and composition, and light differ markedly on roads compared to adjacent surfaces. Dust from road surfaces that is carried onto adjacent surfaces extends the environmental effect of roads. These changes are translated into changes of species composition, and in tundra landscapes, pre-mature thawing of permafrost.

Environmental Characteristics

a. Single segment

  • Vehicle tracks in northern Alaska have higher temperatures, deeper thaw of permafrost, and higher concentrations of soil phosphate compared to undisturbed tundra. Tracks also have fewer species of plants, more evergreen shrubs, and greater dominance by grass-like species (Chapin and Shaver 1981).

  • Heavy dusting near roads altered depth of thaw layer in ground, compared with areas far from roads. Total plant biomass was lower, and plant communities were species-impoverished, possibly due to increased soil acidity caused by road dust (Auerbach et al. 1997).

  • Dust from gravel roads reflects incoming solar heat, which in turn is carried by wind into adjoining natural ecosystems, thus accelerat-

Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×

ing thermokarst (melting of the permafrost). In some situations, spring snowmelt can occur as much as two weeks earlier, and extend up to 100 m (328 ft) outward, near heavily traveled gravel roads (Walker et al. 1987).

b. Intermediate—-political/ecological

  • No citations

c. National

  • No citations

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
×

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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Page 287
Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Page 288
Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Page 289
Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Page 290
Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Suggested Citation:"Appendix B: Spatial Scale of Road Effects on Ecological Conditions: Annotated Bibliography." Transportation Research Board and National Research Council. 2005. Assessing and Managing the Ecological Impacts of Paved Roads. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11535.
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Next: Appendix C: Congressional Declaration of National Environmental Policy, National Environmental Policy Act of 1969 »
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All phases of road development—from construction and use by vehicles to maintenance—affect physical and chemical soil conditions, water flow, and air and water quality, as well as plants and animals. Roads and traffic can alter wildlife habitat, cause vehicle-related mortality, impede animal migration, and disperse nonnative pest species of plants and animals. Integrating environmental considerations into all phases of transportation is an important, evolving process. The increasing awareness of environmental issues has made road development more complex and controversial. Over the past two decades, the Federal Highway Administration and state transportation agencies have increasingly recognized the importance of the effects of transportation on the natural environment. This report provides guidance on ways to reconcile the different goals of road development and environmental conservation. It identifies the ecological effects of roads that can be evaluated in the planning, design, construction, and maintenance of roads and offers several recommendations to help better understand and manage ecological impacts of paved roads.

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