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MANAGING
COAL COMBUSTION
RESIDUES IN MINES
Committee on Mine Placement of Coal Combustion Wastes
Committee on Earth Resources
Board on Earth Sciences and Resources
Division on Earth and Life Studies
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
Washington, D.C.
www.nap.edu
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing
Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of
the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Insti-
tute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen
for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This study was supported by the Environmental Protection Agency, Award No. 68-C-03-
081 (Task Order No. 6). Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations ex-
pressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the
views of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.
International Standard Book Number 0-309-10049-6 (Book)
International Standard Book Number 0-309-65472-6 (PDF)
Library of Congress Control Number 2006926500
Additional copies of this report are available from the National Academies Press, 500
Fifth Street, N.W., Lockbox 285, Washington, DC 20055; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-
3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area); Internet, http://www.nap.edu
Cover design by Michele de la Menardiere. The cover depicts end products of coal-
burning power plants: electricity and coal combustion residues (CCRs). The two CCRs
shown, bottom ash and fly ash, are used with permission from the American Coal Ash
Association (ACAA).
Copyright 2006 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of
distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the
furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the
authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate
that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr.
Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the
National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is
autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the
National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The
National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting
national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achieve-
ments of engineers. Dr. Wm. A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences
to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination
of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the respon-
sibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an
adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical
care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of
Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in
1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy's
purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in
accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the
principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National
Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the
scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Acad-
emies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Wm. A. Wulf are chair
and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.
www.national-academies.org
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COMMITTEE ON MINE PLACEMENT OF
COAL COMBUSTION WASTES
Members
PERRY R. HAGENSTEIN, Chair, Institute for Forest Analysis, Planning, and
Policy, Wayland, Massachusetts
GEORGE R. HALLBERG, The Cadmus Group, Inc., Watertown,
Massachusetts
WILLIAM A. HOPKINS, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University,
Blacksburg
THOMAS J. O'NEIL, Cleveland Cliffs, Inc. (retired), Prescott, Arizona
CHARLES L. POOLE, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill
CAROL J. PTACEK, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada and
Environment Canada, Burlington, Ontario, Canada
ROBIN M. RIDGWAY, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana
LARRY ROBINSON, Florida A & M University, Tallahassee
MADAN M. SINGH, Department of Mines and Mineral Resources, State of
Arizona, Phoenix
MARK S. SQUILLACE, University of Colorado School of Law, Boulder
RICHARD J. SWEIGARD, University of Kentucky, Lexington
BAILUS WALKER, Howard University, Washington, D.C.
JOHN J. WARWICK, Desert Research Institute, Reno, Nevada
JEFFREY J. WONG, California Environmental Protection Agency, Sacramento
Staff
TAMARA L. DICKINSON, Study Director (Until March 2006)
ELIZABETH EIDE, Study Director (From March 2006)
K. JOHN HOLMES, Senior Program Officer
STEPHANIE E. JOHNSON, Senior Program Officer
TANJA E. PILZAK, Research Associate
SANDI M. RUDENSTEIN, Report Review Officer
SARAH M. CAPOTE, Senior Program Assistant
JAMES B. DAVIS, Program Assistant (Until December 2005)
NICHOLAS D. ROGERS Program Assistant (From February 2006)
v
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COMMITTEE ON EARTH RESOURCES
Members
MURRAY W. HITZMAN, Chair, Colorado School of Mines, Golden
PAUL M. BERTSCH, University of Georgia, Aiken, South Carolina
FRANCIS P. BURKE, CONSOL Energy Inc., South Park, Pennsylvania
WILLIAM S. CONDIT, Independent Consultant, Santa Fe, New Mexico
HENRY F. DALTON, Independent Consultant, Louisville, Colorado
MICHAEL DOGGETT, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
THOMAS V. FALKIE, Berwind Natural Resources Corporation, Philadelphia,
Pennsylvania
PATRICIA M. HALL, BP America, Inc., Houston, Texas
DAVID D. LAURISKI, John T. Boyd Company, Highlands Ranch, Colorado
DREW A. MEYER, Vulcan Materials Company, Birmingham, Alabama
CLAYTON NICHOLS, Idaho National Engineering and Environmental
Laboratory, Idaho Falls
SUSAN BRENNAN PATTON, Montana Tech, Butte
REGINAL SPILLER, Frontera Resources Corporation, Houston, Texas
RONG-YU WAN, Metallurgy Consultant, Highlands Ranch, Colorado
Staff
ELIZABETH EIDE, Senior Program Officer
NICHOLAS D. ROGERS, Program Assistant
vi
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BOARD ON EARTH SCIENCES AND RESOURCES
Members
GEORGE M. HORNBERGER, Chair, University of Virginia, Charlottesville
M. LEE ALLISON, Arizona Geological Survey, Tucson
STEVEN R. BOHLEN, Joint Oceanographic Institutions, Washington, D.C.
DAVID COWEN, University of South Carolina, Columbia
KATHERINE H. FREEMAN, Pennsylvania State University, University Park
RHEA L. GRAHAM, New Mexico Interstate Stream Commission,
Albuquerque
ROBYN HANNIGAN, Arkansas State University, Jonesboro
V. RAMA MURTHY, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
RAYMOND A. PRICE, Queen's University, Ontario, Canada
BARBARA A ROMANOWICZ, University of California, Berkeley
JOAQUIN RUIZ, University of Arizona, Tucson
MARK SCHAEFER, Global Environment and Technology Foundation,
Arlington
RUSSELL STANDS-OVER-BULL, BP American Production Company,
Houston
BILLIE L. TURNER II, Clark University, Worcester
STEPHEN G. WELLS, Desert Research Institute, Reno, Nevada
THOMAS J. WILBANKS, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Tennessee
Staff
ANTHONY R. DESOUZA, Director
ELIZABETH EIDE, Senior Program Officer
DAVID A. FEARY, Senior Program Officer
ANNE M. LINN, Senior Program Officer
ANN FRAZIER, Program Officer
SAMMANTHA MAGSINO, Program Officer
RONALD F. ABLER, Senior Scholar
CAETLIN OFIESH, Research Associate
KRISTEN DALY, Research Associate
JENNIFER T. ESTEP, Administrative Associate
VERNA J. BOWEN, Administrative Assistant
AMANDA M. ROBERTS, Senior Program Assistant
JARED ENO, Program Assistant
NICHOLAS D. ROGERS, Program Assistant
vii
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Acknowledgments
T his report represents the integrated efforts of many individuals. The
committee thanks all those who shared their insights and knowledge to
bring the document to fruition. We also thank all those who provided
information and who participated in our public sessions (see Appendix B).
This report has been reviewed by individuals chosen for their diverse per-
spectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the
National Research Council's Report Review Committee. The purpose of this
independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the
institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that
the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsive-
ness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain
confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank
the following individuals for their review of this report:
David Carpenter, State University of New York, Albany
Subhash Chander, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park
James H. Clarke, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee
James N. Galloway, University of Virginia, Charlottesville
Barbara Filas, Knight Piesold and Company, Denver, Colorado
Christopher Hayes, Bjork Lindley Little P.C., Denver, Colorado
A. Dennis Lemly, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service,
Blacksburg, Virginia
Ann Maest, Buka Environmental, Boulder, Colorado
R. James Meiers, Cinergy, Plainfield, Indiana
ix
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x ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Jeffrey Skousen, West Virginia University, Morgantown
Alice D. Stark, New York Department of Health, Albany
Mary Stoertz, Ohio University, Athens
Kenneth G. Stollenwerk, U.S. Geological Survey, Lakewood, Colorado
Stanley Suboleski, Federal Mine Safety and Health Review Commission,
Washington, D.C.
Although the individuals listed above have provided many constructive com-
ments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions and rec-
ommendations nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The
review of this report was overseen by George M. Hornberger, University of
Virginia, and Jonathan G. Price, Nevada Bureau of Mines and Geology, Uni-
versity of Nevada. Appointed by the National Research Council, they were re-
sponsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was
carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review com-
ments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this re-
port rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.
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Preface
C oal is an abundant source of fossil fuel in the United States and because
of its availability and therefore its low cost, coal is used as a major energy
source in a world of limited competitive alternatives. Burning coal in
electric utility plants produces, in addition to power, residues that contain con-
stituents which may be harmful to the environment. What to do with them poses
management challenges for the industry and for state and federal environmental
regulatory agencies. A major management issue is the lack of reliable informa-
tion on the behavior of coal combustion residues when placed in mines.
The Committee on Mine Placement of Coal Combustion Wastes, appointed
by the National Research Council, addressed this issue. During the deliberation
process, the committee provisionally agreed that placing coal combustion resi-
dues in coal mines as part of the mine reclamation process is a viable manage-
ment option as long as it can be done responsibly. This report describes ap-
proaches to addressing that management challenge across a range of conditions.
The committee heard from relevant federal and state officials, representa-
tives of the coal mining and utility industries, concerned citizens, and various
technical and scientific specialists in public meetings. It examined the relevant
scientific literature and other pertinent materials. It was helped throughout by the
hard-working and able staff of the National Research Council.
The committee members thoroughly discussed the report's conclusions and
recommendations through several iterations. In the end, the committee met its
goal of writing a consensus report, for which it and the National Research Coun-
cil bear sole responsibility. The committee thanks all who helped along the way.
Perry Hagenstein
Chair
xi
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Contents
SUMMARY 1
1 INTRODUCTION 13
Coal Production and Use in the United States, 15
Management of Coal Combustion Residues, 19
Purpose of the Study, 22
The Committee's Approach, 24
Report Roadmap, 26
2 COAL COMBUSTION RESIDUES 27
Types of Coal Combustion Residues, 27
Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Coal Combustion Residues, 33
Disposal and Use Options for Coal Combustion Residues, 39
Summary, 56
3 BEHAVIOR OF COAL COMBUSTION RESIDUES
IN THE ENVIRONMENT 59
Hydrological Processes Affecting CCR Behavior, 59
Biogeochemical Processes Affecting CCR Behavior, 68
Potential for Contaminant Transport from CCR in Coal Mines, 76
Summary, 78
4 POTENTIAL IMPACTS FROM PLACEMENT OF
COAL COMBUSTION RESIDUES IN COAL MINES 81
Environmental Impacts, 82
Human Health, 95
Summary, 101
xiii
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xiv CONTENTS
5 CURRENT REGULATORY FRAMEWORK 105
The Surface Mining Control and Reclamation Act of 1977, 105
Other Federal Environmental Laws, 112
EPA's Regulatory Determination of 2000, 120
State Programs, 123
State Regulatory Agencies, 124
Summary, 124
6 CHARACTERIZATION FOR COAL COMBUSTION
RESIDUE MANAGEMENT 127
Risk-Based Framework for CCR Management, 127
Site Characterization, 129
CCR Characterization, 143
Integration of CCR and Site Characterization Data, 152
Summary, 152
7 MANAGEMENT OF COAL COMBUSTION RESIDUES IN
RECLAMATION ACTIVITIES 155
Reclamation, 155
Monitoring, 165
Summary, 173
8 SYNTHESIS OF ISSUES FOR PLANNING AND REGULATION
OF COAL COMBUSTION RESIDUE MINE PLACEMENT 177
Planning for CCR Management, 177
Overarching Issues and Concerns, 183
Summary, 185
REFERENCES 187
APPENDIXES
A BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCHES OF COMMITTEE MEMBERS
AND STAFF 203
B INFORMATION PROVIDED TO THE COMMITTEE 211
C GLOSSARY 217
D ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 227
E SIDE-BY-SIDE COMPARISON OF RCRA TO SMCRA 229
F REGULATORY REQUIREMENTS FOR ISOLATION 253
