|
Items in cart [1] |
Questions? Call 888-624-8373 |
| Copyright © 2009. National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved. Terms of Use and Privacy Statement |
Below are the first 10 and last 10 pages of uncorrected machine-read text (when available) of this chapter, followed by the top 30 algorithmically extracted key phrases from the chapter as a whole.
Intended to provide our own search engines and external engines with highly rich, chapter-representative searchable text on the opening pages of each chapter.
Because it is UNCORRECTED material, please consider the following text as a useful but insufficient proxy for the authoritative book pages.
Do not use for reproduction, copying, pasting, or reading; exclusively for search engines.
OCR for page 741
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
Index
A
Academic/school problems, 350, 357, 363-366, 374
Access to care, 9, 19, 34, 138, 673, 676-678
Acidosis, 200, 330, 331
Actin, 175, 182, 291
Adenyl cyclase, 291
Adenylate cyclase, 173
Administration for Children and Families, 447
Adolescents, 44, 120, 125-126, 265, 349, 364, 377, 381, 382, 448, 449, 463, 628-629, 678, 679, 681-682
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), 172, 173, 179, 188
Advisory Committee on Infant Mortality, 452, 464
African Americans
alcohol use, 27
birth certificate data, 81
birth weights, 25, 77, 105, 112, 113, 114, 121, 130, 138, 139, 140, 154, 209
BMI (maternal), 151, 152
depression, 109
douching practices, 100
drug abuse, 27
educational attainment, 114, 130
environmental toxicant exposure, 251
estimates of gestational age in, 67-68
fetal maturation rate, 78
foreign-born vs. U.S.-born, 26, 129
growth outcomes, 382
income and net worth, 146
infant mortality rates, 50-51, 77, 112, 130, 315-316, 630
infections, 27, 100, 132
infertility, 158
interpregnancy interval, 153, 154
low-income, 106-107, 112, 113, 120-121, 125
marital status–related risks, 125, 127, 128
maternal age–related risks, 126, 128
neighborhood environment, 137, 138-139, 140, 142, 143
personal resources, 119
PPROM, 211-212
prenatal care, 64, 131
prepregnancy health, 125
rates of preterm birth, 5, 12, 26, 48-49, 76, 112, 130, 133, 222, 250, 315, 614, 616, 620-621, 678, 679
risk of preterm birth, 106-107, 109, 120-121, 126, 149, 151, 152, 209, 233, 265, 271, 628-629
stressors, 105, 106-107, 109, 112, 113, 114, 132, 142
survival advantage of preterm infants, 77, 315, 630
OCR for page 742
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
tobacco use, 27, 92, 131
unintended pregnancy, 120-121
Age.
See also Maternal age
perinatal terminology, 61
Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality, 17, 158, 447
Agent Orange, 243, 250
Agricultural chemicals, 231, 237-241, 251, 252
Air pollution exposures
carbon monoxide, 234, 236
exposure assessment, 232-233
gestation stage and, 235-236
location of residence and, 138, 232, 235, 250
nitrous oxides, 234-235, 236
ozone, 234, 235, 236-237
particulates, 22-23, 231, 234, 235-236, 237, 252
PCBs, 242
sulfur dioxide, 22-23, 231, 233-234, 235-236, 237, 252
Alabama, 450, 651, 693
Alan Guttmacher Institute, 690
Albuterol, 291
Alcohol use, 27, 92, 120, 131, 134, 142, 371
Aldrin, 239
Alkaline phosphatase, 270, 272
α-Amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionate (AMPA), 199
α-Fetoprotein, 270, 272
Altitude, and birth weight, 70
Aluminum sulfate, 249
American Academy of Pediatrics, 35, 57, 320-321, 647, 649, 655, 660, 663, 666, 667-668
American Association of Gynecology and Obstetrics Foundation, 437
American Board of Obstetric and Gynecology, 437
American Board of Pediatrics, 439
American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists, 18, 33, 64, 258, 278, 292, 448
ethics handbook, 653, 655
sample antepartum record, 302-307
workforce data, 441
American Indians/Alaska Natives
birth weights, 77
educational attainment, 130
marital status, 128
maternal age, 128
preterm birth rates, 5, 49, 128
American Medical Association, 653
American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM), 17, 18, 33, 165-166, 168, 258
Amniocentesis, 66
Amnionitis, 70, 184, 185-186, 191, 195, 200, 220
Ampicillin, 295, 296
Amplitude-integrated EEG, 68, 69
Anemia, 94-95, 163, 266, 327-328
Anencephaly, 671-672
Aneuploidy, 163, 269
Angelman syndrome, 164
Angiotensin II, 179
Animal models
intrauterine infections, 22, 181, 184, 185, 186, 195-196, 199-200
neonatal sequelae, 196-200, 202, 203, 206
parturition pathways, 22, 181, 184, 185, 186, 187, 192-196, 199-200, 251, 254
prenatal stress, 102, 180
PWMD, 196-197, 199-200
relevance to humans, 192, 193
species comparison of reproductive characteristics, 194-195
Antenatal counseling, 646
Antenatal maternal treatments, 12, 77, 74, 287, 289, 291, 295-300, 318, 651
Antibiotics.
See also individual antibiotics
efficacy for prevention of preterm birth, 22, 132, 151, 186, 274, 275, 276-280, 296, 727
gestational age and, 278
maternal infection, 132, 151, 186, 196, 276-280
neonatal side effects, 319, 322
for PPROM, 278, 296, 727
preconceptional use, 278-279
for preterm labor, 273, 295-296
Anticonvulsant drugs, 199
Anxiety, 24, 103, 104, 107-108, 111-112, 180, 371
Apnea, 318, 321
Apoptosis, 175, 188, 191, 199, 200, 325
Appendicitis, 279
Arab Americans, 158
OCR for page 743
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
Arachidonic acid, 174, 191, 205, 251, 293
Arginine, 294
Arizona, 679
Aroclor 1254, 251
Arsenic, 248-249, 252
Artificial insemination, 16, 45, 157
Asians/Pacific Islanders
birth weights, 140
educational attainment, 130
marital status, 128
maternal age, 128
neighborhood environment, 140
preterm birth rates, 5, 26, 48, 49-50, 76, 128, 133, 222
Asphyxia, 328, 664
Assisted reproductive technologies (ART).
See also specific procedures
accreditation of embryo laboratories, 165
ASRM practice guidelines, 17, 165-166, 168, 258
birth defects, 163-164
definition, 16, 155
delivery method, 163
estimated date of confinement, 61
ethical issues, 656-658
fetal reduction, 166, 657
incidence of pregnancies, 155-157, 167-168
infant mortality rates, 17, 162, 657
international comparisons, 166-167
live birth trends, 46-47, 157, 164, 165
low birth weights, 46, 162, 657, 679
maternal age and, 16, 45, 46-47, 159, 166, 167
maternal and child health risks, 162-164
multiple gestations, 16-17, 45-47, 135, 154, 157, 159-160, 161, 163-165, 258, 266, 424, 606, 631
number of embryos transferred, 159, 165-168, 258, 656-658
oversight/regulation, 164-165, 258
parturition pathways, 177
preterm birth trends and risks, 16, 17, 37, 45-47, 161, 265, 266-267, 631, 657, 678, 679
procedures, 155-157
reporting of outcomes, 16, 18, 45, 155, 157
singletons, 17, 46, 159, 162-163, 168, 266-267, 657
success rate, 166
utilization rate, 156, 157, 159
Association of American Medical Colleges, 438, 442
Association of Pediatric Department Chairs, 437
Asthma, 14, 32, 149
Atherosclerosis, 152
Atosiban, 293, 294, 295
Atrazine, 240
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, 14, 32, 348, 370, 371, 374, 463
Australia, 42, 43, 209, 369, 646, 661, 674, 677, 692, 693
Autism, 371, 422
Autoimmune diseases, 82
Avon Premature Infant Project, 394-395
B
Baby Doe regulations, 659, 665-666
Bacterial vaginosis (BV), 27, 100, 102, 110, 132, 135, 151, 185, 186, 217, 269, 270, 271, 272, 274, 276, 277, 278, 279, 727, 729
Bacteriuria, asymptomatic, 110, 132, 133, 184, 276
Bacteroides, 269
Ballard Score, 67, 68, 71, 78, 612, 613
Bangladesh, 248-249
Bayley Scale of Infant Development, 357, 392
Bax protein, 191
Bcl2 protein, 191
BEAM Trial, 300
Bechwith-Wiedermann syndrome, 164
Behavioral influences.
See also Nutrition,
maternal;
Physical activity;
Tobacco use
alcohol use, 27, 92, 120, 131, 134, 142
clustering of, 90-91
cultural context, 142
douching, 99-100, 121, 131
employment-related, 26, 36, 97-99, 110, 121, 133, 134-135, 149, 265
illicit drug use, 24, 26, 27, 36, 63, 89, 92-93, 121, 130-131, 133, 134, 180, 626
infections, 94
interventions, 471-472
methodological issues, 23-24, 90-91, 93
OCR for page 744
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
racial/ethnic disparities and, 26, 27, 36, 92, 100, 129-131, 133
sexual activity, 99
socioeconomic disparities, 90, 93, 133, 134-135
stress and, 180-181
Behavioral and socio-emotional outcomes, 14, 32, 47, 349, 350, 370-372, 375, 376-377, 381, 394, 396
Belgium, 167, 168, 470, 668, 669
Berendes, H., 605
β-adrenergic receptor agonists, 290-291, 295
β2-adrenergic receptor, 212, 215
β-hexachlorocyclohexane, 239
Beta-mimetic drugs, 291-292, 293, 294
Betamethasone, 297, 298, 299, 334
Biological mechanisms.
See also Parturition process;
Preterm premature rupture of membranes
in environmental toxicant exposures, 251-252
prenatal stress, 101, 110, 143-144, 179-180, 626
proteomic modifications, 219-221
RDS, 66, 202
Biophysical profile, 66
Biotin, 219
Birth certificates, 9, 60, 78, 79, 80, 81, 209
Birth defects, 150-151, 162, 163-164, 263, 315, 415, 422
Birth weight.
See also Low birth weight;
Very low birth weight
categories, 57-59
and costs of medical care, 705, 706-707
depression and, 109
gender differences, 63, 70, 77
geographic differences, 70
and gestational age, 8-9, 10, 59, 79, 242
and infant mortality, 21, 446
infections and, 186, 278
interpregnancy interval and, 152, 153-154
and length of hospital stay, 407, 408, 710
methodological issues, 56-59, 62, 347, 386
misclassification, 79
neighborhood conditions and, 137-142
neurodevelopmental disabilities by, 356, 357, 358-363, 364, 365, 366, 367, 368, 420-421
nutrition and, 95, 96, 134
personal resources and, 119
population differences, 25, 63, 70
prenatal stress and, 104, 180
program eligibility based on, 461
as proxy for maturity, 4, 5, 8, 25, 31, 34, 36, 56-59, 62, 347, 386, 606
racial/ethnic disparities, 25, 63, 70, 76, 77, 105, 112, 113, 114, 121, 130, 138-139, 140, 154, 209
reporting, 9
smoking and, 90, 217, 283
social support and, 116, 143
socioeconomic disparities, 139-140
unintended pregnancy and, 120, 121
violence and, 110, 138
Blacks. See African Americans
Blood pressure, 102.
See also Hypertension, maternal
Body mass index, 80, 94, 95, 134, 151, 152
Born-Alive Infant Protection Act of 2001, 659-660
Botulinum Toxicum injections, 353
Bradycardia, 321, 327
Brazillian cohort, 239
Breast cancer, 163, 338
Breastfeeding, 338, 343
Bromodichloromethane, 244
Bronchodilators, 319
Bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD), 202, 297, 298, 317, 318, 319-321, 324, 327, 331, 336, 343, 378-379, 390, 707
Budin, Pierre, 57
Building Interdisciplinary Careers in Women’s Health Program, 437
Burroughs Wellcome Fund, 33, 438, 446, 731
C
C-CPEP Trial, 274
C-reactive protein, 270
Cadmium, 248
Caffeine, 321
Calcium
channel blockers, 291, 292-293
mobilization, 171, 174, 175, 182, 251, 293
supplementation, 95
Calgranulins, 220
OCR for page 745
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
California, 234, 236, 403, 406, 407, 408, 417, 428, 646, 691, 692, 693, 697, 705
Calmodulin, 171, 175, 182
Canada, 26, 42, 43, 133, 233, 234, 240, 365-366, 384, 385, 647-648, 661, 690
Cancer, 163, 243, 338
Candida, 325
CAP gene, 173, 181
Carbon monoxide, 234, 236
CARDIA study, 113
Cardiometabolic disease, 388-389
Cardiovascular development, 326
Cardiovascular disease
adulthood risk, 386, 388, 389
maternal, 149, 150, 152
Cardiovascular function, 101, 114, 321
Career development in clinical research.
See also Training clinical researchers
board certification, 439
faculty vitality, 442-443, 453
liability concerns and, 438-439, 440, 441
mentors, 436, 439, 453
need for change, 7-8, 439-440
ob/gyn physician researchers, 7, 32, 438, 440-446
women, 439-442
Caspase, 191
Catalase, 199
Catecholamines, 110, 179, 205
Cefetamet-pivoxil, 276
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 16, 33, 35, 165, 258, 415, 425, 657, 690
funding for preterm research, 17, 446, 447, 729-730
perinatal data collection, 10, 45, 79, 84
Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services, 447
Central nervous system complications.
See also Cerebral palsy;
Cognitive impairment;
Neurodevelopmental disabilities;
Neurodevelopmental support;
Periventricular white matter disease
delivery method and, 332
diagnosis, 333, 379
germinal matrix injury, 333, 334
IPH, 333, 334, 379
IVH, 295, 296, 297, 298, 300, 326, 331, 33-334, 336, 366, 379, 385
neuroimaging, 379
neuroprotective medications, 336
treatment, 333-334, 336
Cerebral atrophy, 334, 335, 336, 379
Cerebral palsy (CP), 14, 32, 196, 199-200, 300, 320, 325, 335-336, 348, 350-353, 371, 372, 374, 378, 399, 403, 415-421, 424, 425, 675, 707
Cervical
cerclage, 273, 274, 275, 281-282
examination, 12, 268-269
inflammation, 272
injury or abnormality, 189, 266
length, 189, 268, 270, 271, 272, 275, 281-282, 283, 286
ripening, 170, 172, 174-175, 181
scores, 268
Cesarean delivery, 43-44, 163, 181, 234, 332, 622, 623, 651-652, 653
Charge to committee, 3-4, 33, 52
Child abuse and neglect, 143, 463, 659
Child Abuse Protection and Treatments Act, 659, 665-666
Child Health and Developmental Studies of the San Francisco Bay Area, 238
Children’s Hospital of Wisconsin, 670
China, 42, 50, 233, 234, 237, 248
Chlamydia trachomatis, 135, 270
Chlorination disinfection by-products, 244-245
3-Chloro-4-(dichloromethyl)-5-hydroxy-2(5H)-furanone, 244
Chloroform, 244, 245
Chorioamnionitis, 82, 184, 185-186, 200, 205, 296, 335
Choriocarcinoma, 219
Chromosomal disorders, 69, 80, 162
Chronic lung disease (CLD). See Bronchopulmonary dysplasia
Chronological age, 61
Citrulline, 294
Classifications of preterm birth, 607-608
Clindamycin, 276, 277, 278
Clinical research on preterm birth.
See also Career development in clinical research;
Funding for clinical research and training;
Training clinical researchers
adolescent subjects, 448, 449, 681-682
barriers to, 7, 32, 34, 435-436, 438-439
ethical issues, 447-451, 679-682
OCR for page 746
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
federal activities, 446-447
informed consent, 448, 449, 680-681
institutional review boards, 448, 449
leadership challenges and needs, 8, 452-454
liability issues, 450-452
minimal risk vs no added risk, 448, 450-451, 680
multidisciplinary approach, 32, 452-453, 473-474
ob/gyn physician researcher workforce, 7, 32, 438-439, 440-446, 453-454
protections for subjects of, 448-451, 680-681
reimbursement for clinical services, 451-452, 453
Clinical Risk Index for Babies, 67
Co-amoxicillin-clavulanic acid treatment, 295, 296
Cocaine use, 24, 93-94, 134, 180, 191, 471, 631.
See also Drug abuse
Cochrane database, 292, 342
Cognitive impairment
academic problems, 350, 357, 363-366, 374
attention deficits, 14, 32, 348, 363, 370
auditory processing and discrimination, 369
Bayley Scale of Infant Development, 357
birth weight and, 356, 357, 358-363, 364, 365
cystic PVL and, 335
development quotient, 355, 357
doxapram and, 321
economic costs of, 399, 403, 415-421, 424, 425
executive function disorder, 370
fetal brain sparing and, 71
gestational age at birth and, 356, 357, 358-363, 365, 372, 374
infections and, 325, 378
IQ scores, 71, 349, 354-363, 370, 371, 394, 425
language disorders, 14, 32, 328, 348, 363, 369-370, 374, 394
learning disabilities, 14, 32, 348, 363, 364-365, 369, 371, 374
memory, 363, 365, 369, 370
mental retardation, 14, 32, 47, 348, 353, 355-356, 374, 376, 399, 403, 415-421, 424, 425
spatial skills, 363, 394
and special education, 11, 47, 363, 364, 423-424, 717-719
steroid therapy and, 320
visual processing and perceptual deficits, 362-363, 365, 368-369, 394
Cohabitation, 127, 129
Collaborative Perinatal Project, 349
Colombia statistics and studies, 240, 343
Colony stimulating factors, 213
Colorado, 70
Community factors.
See also Neighborhood conditions
ethical issues, 654
methodological issues, 136, 144-146
modeling, 136, 139-140, 144-146
quality index, 145
racial/ethnic disparities, 136, 137, 138-139, 140
research needs, 141
social class disparities, 136, 139-141, 142, 233
stressful, 137, 142, 143-144
Complications. See Neonatal complications of preterm birth
Computerized tomography, 333
Conduct disorders, 371
Conferences on preterm birth, 605
Congenital anomalies, 63, 64, 69, 163, 327, 328, 661, 663, 664, 669, 671-672
Congestive heart failure, 152
Connective tissue disorders, 189
Connexins
CX-26, 181
CX-43, 171, 172, 174, 181
Contraction-associated proteins (CAPs), 171, 173, 174
Contractions. See Preterm labor;
Uterine
Coronary artery disease, 386
Corrected age, 61
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), 102, 110, 170, 172-173, 174, 176, 179, 180, 187, 215, 269, 270
Cortisol, 102, 110, 172, 174, 179, 185, 192, 194, 297, 340
Costs of preterm birth. See Medical care costs of preterm birth;
Societal costs of preterm birth
Croatia, 233
CRYO Trial, 384
Cuban statistics and studies, 42, 49
OCR for page 747
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
Cultural factors.
See also Racial/ethnic disparities
neighborhood characteristics, 142
in risk behaviors, 142
and stress, 26, 36, 111-112, 142
Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), 171, 173, 174, 291
Cyclic guanosine monophosphate, 171, 294
Cyclooxygenase inhibitors, 293
Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2), 174, 187
Cystine, 199
Cytochrome P450, 216, 243
Cytokines, proinflammatory, 102, 132, 173, 174, 177, 179, 180, 184, 186, 187, 195, 205, 222, 252, 335
Cytomegalovirus, 82, 325, 329
Czech Republic statistics and studies, 233, 234, 235
D
Data collection
cause of death, 82
gene-environment interactions, 227
fetal deaths, 81, 82
perinatal, 9-10, 45, 79, 84
recommendations, 6, 8-10, 73, 84-85, 480-482
vital records, 9, 43, 60, 78, 79-81, 209
Data reporting
ART-related outcomes, 16, 18, 45, 155, 157
artifacts of, 78, 635-636
birth weight, 9
infant outcomes, 15-16, 18, 45, 73-74, 155, 157
international differences, 43, 636-637
LMP, 80
quality of vital records, 79-81
resuscitation at delivery, 73
standards, 79
vital statistics, 9-10, 60, 78, 79-83
DDT, 231, 237-239, 241, 251, 252
Decidual
hemorrhage, 17, 182-183, 269
membrane activation, 170, 172, 174, 175
Defensins, 220, 269, 272
Definitions of preterm birth, 4, 8, 31, 36, 56, 57-59, 72, 224, 230, 606-609
Delayed childbearing, 154.
See also Maternal age
Delinquency, 371, 394
Delivery method, 43-44.
See also Cesarean delivery
Denmark, statistics and studies, 42, 96, 103, 104, 112, 155, 371, 385
Depression
maternal, 14, 103, 104, 107, 109, 111-112, 120, 380, 390
premature children, 371
Developmental disabilities. See Neurodevelopmental disabilities
Dexamethasone, 297, 298, 299, 320
DHEA-S, 172, 173-174, 179
Diabetes mellitus
fetal origins hypothesis, 387, 388
maternal, 44, 71, 80, 82, 148, 149, 150, 163, 263, 617, 622, 630-631
Diagnosis
CNS complications, 333, 379
preterm labor, 12, 220, 268, 273, 284-287, 289-290;
see also Prediction/predictors of preterm birth
Dichloroacetic acid, 244
Dichlorobromomethane, 244
Dieldrin, 239, 241
Diet. See Nutrition, maternal
Dioxin, 243-244, 250
Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine, 202
District of Columbia, 168
Diuretics, 219, 333-334
DNA methylation, 164, 218
Domestic/personal violence, 110, 120, 135, 143
Douching, 99-100, 121, 131
Doxapram, 321
Drug abuse, 24, 26, 27, 36, 63, 89, 92-93, 121, 130-131, 133, 134, 180, 371, 471-472, 626
Dubowitz score, 67, 68, 71, 78, 612, 613
Due date, 60-61
Dysmorphic syndrome, 69
E
Ear infections, 14, 370
Early intervention programs, 11, 15, 82, 202, 353, 380, 393-396, 399, 400, 402, 422-423, 469-470, 718-719
OCR for page 748
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
Early and Periodic Screening Diagnosis and Treatment (EPSDT) program, 459
Earned Income Tax Credits, 471
Earthquakes, 106, 111
Eclampsia, 655
Economic costs. See Medical care costs of preterm birth;
Societal costs of preterm birth
Education
costs of preterm birth, 11, 47, 400, 423-424, 460, 706, 717-719
early intervention services, 393-395, 458, 460, 469, 472
Education for All Handicapped Children Act, 373
Educational attainment, 114, 130, 390, 622, 628-629
Ehlers-Danlos syndrome, 209
Electroencephalography (EEG), 68
Electroretinography, 68
Embryonic chorionic gonadotropin, 187
Emergency Medical Treatment and Labor Act, 672
Emotional and affective states.
See also Anxiety;
Depression;
Prenatal stress, maternal
intrusive thought, 112
linkages to preterm birth, 24, 102, 103, 104, 107-109, 110, 111
Employment
occupational exposures to toxins, 231, 237, 240-241, 242, 246, 248, 249-250
physical demands of, 26, 36, 97-99, 110, 121, 133, 134-135, 136, 149, 265, 471
stress related to, 47, 97, 109-110, 135, 391
Endocrine pathways, 144, 179, 215
Endometrial cancer, 163
Endorphins, 340
Endotoxin, 200
Enterovirus, 82
Environmental Genome Project, 211
Environmental Protection Agency, 33
Environmental toxicants.
See also Air pollution exposures
agricultural chemicals, 231, 237-241, 251, 252
animal studies, 251
biological mechanisms, 251-252
chlorination disinfection by-products, 244-245
co-exposures, 231
cumulative exposures, 231-232
dioxin, 243-244, 250
environmental tobacco smoke, 22, 231, 245-247, 252, 321
exposure assessment, 231-232, 237, 244, 253
gene interactions, 226
and gestational age at birth, 237
maternal age and, 246
metals and metalloids, 22, 230, 231, 232, 247-249, 252
occupational exposures, 231, 237, 240-241, 242, 246, 248, 249-250
paternal exposures, 240, 243, 249-250
PCBs, 241-243, 251
phthalates, 252, 253
racial/ethnic disparities, 138, 233, 235, 240, 250-251
research needs, 253-254
residence as exposure proxy, 231, 232, 233, 235, 236, 250
socioeconomic disparities, 232-233, 240, 250
Epigenetics, 218-219
Epilepsy, 353
Erythromycin, 151, 275, 276, 277, 278, 296
Escherichia coli, 200
Estonia, 668
Estrogen receptor-alpha, 238
Estrogens, 172, 173-174, 175, 179, 187, 215
Ethical issues
access to perinatal care, 673, 676-678
adolescents, 448, 449, 678, 681-682
Baby Doe regulations, 659, 665-666
brain death in pregnant women with periviable fetuses, 654-655
in decision making, 287, 645-652, 655
delivery room resuscitation, 658-659, 674-675
distributive justice of care, 678-679
end-of-life and LSMT practices, 645-652, 658-672
financial costs, 673-675
infertility treatments, 656-658
informed consent, 448, 449, 649-652, 653, 655, 656, 658, 659, 663, 668, 681
OCR for page 749
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
intrauterine interventions, 448, 655-656
legal precedents, 649-651, 658-659
maternal-fetal conflicts, 287, 652-658
maternal illness, 655
paternal rights, 448, 680-681
personhood, 653, 659-660
professional guidelines, 655-656, 662, 667-668
racism or ethnic prejudice, 678
in research, 447-448, 679-682
social and community context, 654
societal costs of preterm birth, 673-679
termination of pregnancy, 448, 681
viability threshold, 314, 448, 450-451, 647, 658-662, 681
Etiologies of preterm birth.
See also Behavioral influences;
Community factors;
Gene-environment interactions;
Genetic susceptibility;
Medical and pregnancy conditions;
Psychosocial factors
animal models, 22
biological pathways, 21, 22, 37, 89, 143-144
environmental pollutants and, 22-23, 37
life course perspective, 37
modeling complex interactions, 25-26, 37, 141-142, 143, 144-147, 256-257, 272, 273
racial/ethnic disparities, 37, 77
research recommendations, 6, 21-23, 122-123, 255-256, 488-489
EURONIC project, 661, 668-669
European Society of Human Reproduction and Embryology, 166
Expression proteomics, 220
Extracorporeal membrane oxygenation, 198
Extremely low birth weight, 59, 314, 448, 450-451, 647, 648, 650, 651, 658-662
Eye. See Ophthalmic impairment;
Visual processing and perceptual deficits
F
Factor V, 82, 212
Family
costs of preterm birth, 3, 47, 371, 391, 402, 426-427, 459, 675, 676, 706, 712
early intervention services, 393-395, 458, 460, 469
history of preterm birth, 12, 22, 152, 209
impacts of premature infants on, 14, 47, 389-393
parental leave policies, 638
participation in medical decision making, 72, 287, 645-652, 655, 659, 660, 664, 665, 666, 667, 668
public policies affecting, 471
Faroe Islands, 96
Fas-caspase apoptosis pathway, 191
Fatty acids, long-chain, 24, 94, 96-97
Feeding intolerance, 322, 337
Fenoterol, 291
Fentanyl, 340
Ferritin, 270
Fertility Clinic Success Rate and Certification Act of 1992, 165
Fetal
adrenal androgen, 172, 185
brain sparing, 69, 71
congenital abnormalities, 64, 163, 327, 328
cortisol, 172, 185
death, 73, 74, 79, 81, 82, 152, 162, 186, 209, 279
developmental milestones, 317-318, 322, 326, 327, 328, 331-332
effects of tocolytics, 293
fibronectin, 267, 270, 271, 272, 275, 277, 285, 286
glucocorticoid effects, 297
growth, 58, 59, 95, 96, 109, 263, 298;
see also Intrauterine growth restriction
HPA axis, 171-172, 179, 185, 188, 269
immune interactions with maternal system, 150, 324
intrauterine interventions, 448, 655-656
lung development, 66, 70-71, 201-202, 317-318
membrane activation, 175
movement, 332
neurological development, 298, 331-332, 338-339
origins of adult disease, 386-389
red cell alloimmunization, 150
stress, 287
twin-to-twin transfusion sequence, 150
Fetomaternal hemorrhage, 82, 327
OCR for page 750
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
Fibronectins, 175, 267, 270, 271, 272, 275, 277, 285, 286
Filipino women, 49-50
Finland, 26, 42, 129, 133, 693, 697
First And Second Trimester Evaluation of Risk trial, 162
Fish and fish oil, 96-97, 242
Flame retardants, 252
Florida, 450, 465, 697
Fluconazole, 325
Fluorescent polarization, 66
Folate, 24, 95, 219
Food and Drug Administration, 291, 447, 682
Foster care, 28
France, 42, 470, 605, 648, 668
Free radicals, 198-199, 204, 205, 333, 335
Functional Genomics and Proteomic Markers of Preterm Delivery and Their Variation by Race project, 729
Functional maturity, 68-69
Functional proteomics, 220
Funding for clinical research and training
Burroughs Wellcome Fund, 438, 446, 731
CDC, 17, 446, 447, 729-730
clinical revenues and, 451-452, 453
March of Dimes, 20, 33, 446, 730
NICHD, 437, 447, 725, 726, 727
NIH, 227, 436, 437, 438, 446, 447, 452, 453-454, 725-729
by professional associations, 437
recommendations, 8, 32, 255
by subject area, 725-731
Fungal infections, 325
G
G proteins, 173, 182
Gamete intrafallopial transfer (GIFT), 155, 156, 162.
See also Assisted reproductive technologies
Gamma-interferon (IFN-γ), 132, 213, 214, 222
Gap junctions, 171, 173, 174, 175, 177, 181, 293
Gardnerella vaginalis, 269
Gastroesophageal reflux, 321, 323-324
Gelatinase B, 175
Gender differences
behavioral outcomes, 371
birth weight, 63, 70, 77
growth outcomes, 382
infant mortality rate, 77
pulmonary morbidity, 77
Gene-environment interactions
epigenetic approaches, 218-219
goals of studies, 211, 216-217
infection/inflammation, 187, 211, 213-214, 217
methodological issues, 223-228
and parturition, 177, 187
racial/ethnic disparities and, 132-133, 223
smoking, 217
toxic agents, 226
General Health Questionnaire, 107
Genetic susceptibility
analytical challenges, 224-228
candidate genes, 210, 212-216, 225
data management and integration, 227
disease-associated, 222-223
evidence of, 22, 209-216
family history of preterm birth, 12, 22, 152, 209
gene-gene interactions, 224
genetic association studies, 209-211, 226
haplotype analysis, 224
inflammation pathway, 212, 213-214
international comparisons, 209
maternal history of preterm labor/birth, 107, 149, 209
maternal vs. fetal genes, 226
microarray analysis, 216, 219
phenotype definition, 224
population admixture, 223, 225-226
positional cloning, 210
PPROM, 211-212, 223
and racial/ethnic disparities, 26, 27, 130, 132, 152, 209, 211-212, 221-223
reporting and replication of results, 228
sample size and power, 227
single-gene candidates, 209, 211-212
twin studies, 209
uteroplacental pathway, 214-215
whole-genome scanning, 210
Genital tract infections. See Infection and inflammation, maternal
Geographic differences.
See also International comparisons;
individual states and countries
comparisons, 636-638
infant mortality rate, 627, 631, 634, 638
malpractice insurance, 450
OCR for page 751
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
in preterm birth, 40-41, 617, 618
racial/ethnic disparities, 638-639
Geographic information systems, 144
Geonomic and Proteomic Network for Premature Birth Research, 221
Georgia, 41, 316-317, 677
Germany, 42
Gestational age
fetal growth curves by, 58, 59, 63, 69-70
measurement, 9, 10, 38, 43, 59-65, 67-68, 70, 72, 78, 80, 83, 337, 609-614;
see also Measurement of maturity and stress effects, 104
Gestational age at birth.
See also Large for gestational age;
Small for gestational age
antibiotic therapy and, 278
ART and, 61
and birth defect–related preterm birth, 150
and birth weight, 8-9, 10, 59, 79, 242
categories, 58-59, 75, 79, 608
and cesarean delivery, 43-44
and cognitive impairment, 356, 357, 358-363, 365, 372, 374
and complications of preterm birth, 3, 13-14, 76, 201-202, 314, 349
data collection, 9-10, 79
defining preterm birth, 4, 8, 31, 36, 56, 57-59, 72, 606-609
environmental exposures, 237
interpregnancy interval, 153
and intrauterine infections, 184
and length of hospital stay, 407, 408
and lung development, 76, 201-202, 318, 319, 336
and management of care, 74, 76
maternal hypertension and, 617, 622
and medical costs, 401, 410-414, 428, 673, 674, 689, 694-695, 698-700, 704-705, 706-707, 711
misclassification, 79, 80
and mortality, 3, 13, 31, 40, 72-74, 79, 287, 288, 314-315, 406, 412, 627, 630, 632-635
multiple gestations and, 75, 161-162, 622
and neurodevelopmental disabilities, 14, 349, 350-351, 352, 353, 366, 367, 372, 416, 419
and ophthalmic impairment, 366
and outcomes, 347-348
as proxy for prematurity, 56-57, 59-65, 337, 609-614
serum eicosapentanoic acid levels and, 96
tobacco use and, 622
trends, 2-3, 31, 38-39, 614, 615, 616, 619, 623
and survival, 32, 74, 288, 289, 290
use of data, 79, 609-610
viability threshold, 65, 314, 448, 450-451, 647, 658-662, 681
Glaucoma, 331, 368
Glucocorticoids, 172, 179-180, 203, 287, 297
Glucose metabolism, 99, 386, 387
Glutamate, 199, 212, 335
Glutamic acid, 212
Glutathione, 199
Glutathione peroxidase, 199
Glycoprotein, 271
Granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), 270, 272
Greece, 153
Growth
fetal, 58, 59, 95, 96, 109, 263, 298;
see also Intrauterine growth restriction
premature infants, 3, 32, 320, 321, 381-382
Gsα regulatory proteins, 173
Guatemala, 42
H
Haloacetic acids, 244
Hammersmith hospital, 663
Haplotypes, 210
Harris, Lisa, 654
Hawaiian women, 49-50
Health insurance
ART coverage, 158, 165, 167
burden on private payers, 705-706
interconception care, 466
managed care reimbursement policies, 467
Medicaid and Medicare, 19, 20, 28, 404, 406, 417, 456-460, 462-463, 464-465, 466
reimbursement for clinical services in research, 451-452
SCHIP, 19, 457, 458, 465
and utilization of services, 638
OCR for page 762
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
Oral contraceptive use, 60
Orciprenaline, 291
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development, 710
Organophosphate pesticides, 239-240, 241
Otitis media, 328
Outcomes for premature infants.
See also Cognitive impairment;
Neurodevelopmental disabilities
accuracy of professional estimates of, 651-652
antibiotic therapy and, 22, 132, 151, 186, 274, 275, 276-280
ART and, 17, 46, 162, 657
behavioral and socio-emotional problems, 14, 32, 47, 349, 350, 370-372, 375, 376-377, 381, 394, 396
early intervention and, 15, 82, 202, 353, 380, 393-396, 469-470
educational achievement, 365-366, 376, 377, 381, 394
family impacts, 389-393, 395-396
fetal-origins hypothesis, 386-389
functional, 349, 369, 374-377, 384, 392, 396
gestational age at birth and, 347-348
growth, 3, 32, 320, 321, 381-382, 387, 388
health, 3, 14, 32, 202, 320, 380-381, 386-389
intact survival, 373-374
maternal mental health and, 378, 380, 390
measures, 14, 25, 36, 59, 349
methodological issues, 14, 25, 36, 59, 347, 349, 377, 386-387, 396-397
multiple disabilities, 371-372
neonatal factors, 318, 319, 320, 321, 378-379
prenatal and intrapartum predictors, 378
quality of care and, 409, 465, 631, 633, 677-678
quality of life, 383-386
reporting, 15-16, 18, 45, 73-74, 155, 157
research recommendations, 13-16, 349, 378, 392-393, 430-431, 484-485
severity of disability and, 372-374, 390
social support and, 390
socioeconomic conditions and, 379-380, 396
treatment interventions, 12, 288-301
Ovarian cancer, 163, 338
Ovulation hyperstimulation syndrome, 163
Ovulation promotion, 16, 17, 18, 45, 157, 160, 162, 163, 167, 168, 258
Oxidative stress, 197, 204-205
Oxytocin
and parturition process, 170, 171, 172, 175, 178, 179, 215
receptor antagonists, 291, 293-294
receptors, 174, 177, 181, 215, 294
Ozone, 234, 235, 236-237
P
p53 protein, 191
Pancuronium, 334
Papiernik, Émile, 605
Parathyroid hormone-related peptide, 171
Parity, and risk of preterm birth, 628-629
Parturition process
animal models, 22, 181, 184, 185, 186, 187, 192-196, 199-200, 251, 254
ART and, 177
behavioral response, 180-181
Braxton-Hicks contractions, 171
cervical ripening, 170, 172, 174-175, 181
CRH and, 170, 172-173, 174, 176, 179, 180, 187, 215
decidual and fetal membrane activation, 170, 172, 174, 175
decidual hemorrhage and, 17, 182-183
environmental toxicants and 251-252, 254
estrogens and, 172, 173-174, 175, 179, 187, 215
gene-environment interactions and, 177, 187
implantation errors and, 187-188
infection and inflammation and, 21, 22, 36, 135, 176, 179-180, 184-187, 195-196, 199-200, 213-214, 251, 252, 265, 325
intrauterine vascular lesions and, 176-177
involution, 170, 175
maternal health risk, 13
myometrial activation, 170, 171-172, 263
myometrial stimulation, 170, 171, 172-175
OCR for page 763
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
NIH research portfolio, 726-727
normal pathways, 170-176
obesity and, 94
oxytocin and, 170, 171, 172, 174, 175, 177, 178, 179, 181, 215, 293
placental clock, 111, 172-173, 176, 177-181, 188
preterm pathogenesis, 12, 111, 176-189
progesterone and, 171, 172, 173, 174, 179, 181, 187, 215
prostaglandins and, 96, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174-175, 177, 178, 184, 185, 195, 215, 251, 293
quiescence, 170, 171, 173, 292
research needs, 189
signaling mechanisms for labor, 68, 110, 171-173, 179, 185, 251
stress and, 111, 177-181
uterine contractility, 170, 171, 172, 174, 175, 182, 185, 215, 251
uterine overdistension and, 181
uteroplacental thrombosis and, 182-183, 214-215
Parvovirus infection, 82
Patent ductus arteriosus, 198, 293, 297, 326-327
Paternal
exposure to environmental toxicants, 240, 243, 249-250
perceptions of impacts, 391
rights, 448, 680-681
Pennsylvania, 234, 450, 664, 696
Perhydroxyl, 204
Perinatal care.
See also Neonatal intensive care units
access to, 673, 676-678
evidence-based selective referral, 20-21, 468
quality of, 19, 20, 31-32, 133, 469, 631, 633, 676
regionalization, 20, 316-317, 676
Perinatal mortality
antenatal maternal treatment and, 297, 298, 300
ART and, 657
data reporting, 10, 82
defined, 73-74, 82
gestational age and, 288
regionalization and NICU access and, 289, 292, 677-678
viability limit and, 73-74, 82, 630
Periodontal infections, 110, 184, 186, 187, 265, 279-280
Peritonitis, 323
Periventricular white matter disease (PWMD)
animal models, 196-197, 199-200
antenatal corticosteroid therapy and, 297
cerebral atrophy, 334, 335, 336, 379
cerebral white matter lesions, 196, 197, 199-200
cerebrovascular regulatory impairment and, 198, 333, 335
hypoperfusion and, 197
incidence, 196
infection or inflammation and, 199-200, 317, 326, 335
and neurodevelopmental diabilities, 335-336
periventricular leukomalacia, 196-197, 199-200, 297, 298, 333, 335, 336, 366, 379
pre-OL vulnerability, 198-199, 335
and strabismus, 366
in ventilated premature infants, 198
Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors, 252
Personal resources, 118-120, 127
Personal Responsibility Work Opportunity and Reconciliation Act, 462
Personhood, 653, 659-660
PGDH, 174
PGE, 181
PGE2, 174, 191
PGF2α, 174
PGHS, 174
PGHS-2, 181
Pharmacogenetics Research Network and Knowledge Base (PharmGKB), 227
Phenobarbital, 300, 334
Philippines, 153
Phosphatidylglycerol, 66
Phospholipase A2, 191, 251
Phospholipase C, 182
Phthalates, 252, 253
Phthisis, 331
Physical activity
leisure, 24, 99
neonatal, 341
occupational demands, 26, 36, 97-99, 110, 121, 133, 134-135, 136, 149, 265, 471
OCR for page 764
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
protective effects, 99, 341
reduction, 273, 282, 283
Physiological severity measures, 66-67
Placenta previa, 163, 262, 265
Placental
abruption, 45, 70, 90, 150, 162-163, 182, 183, 189, 265
clock, 172-173, 177-181
infarction, 70
separation, 175
Plasmin, 175
Platelet-activating factor, 205
Pneumonia, neonatal, 295, 325
Pneumothorax, 202, 334
Poland, 248
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers, 252
Polychlorinated biphenyls, 241-243, 251
Polyhydramnios, 181, 191, 209, 610
Porencephaly, 379
Post-NICU discharge interventions
Avon Premature Infant Project, 394-395
early infant and childhood, 393-394
National Early Intervention Longitudinal Study, 395-396
Post-term infants, 80
Post-traumatic stress disorder, 112
Postdate pregnancy, 263
Postmenstrual age, 61, 69
Postpartum endometritis, 185
Prediction/predictors of preterm birth
biological, 220, 269-271
biophysical, 267-269, 270, 272
Bishop scores, 267
cervical examination, 267, 268-269
clinical, 265-267
fetal fibronectin, 267, 270, 271, 272
lower genital tract markers, 269, 270, 271, 272
multiple-marker approach, 271-273
rationale for, 264-265, 272
research needs, 272-273
sensitivity, 3, 270
serum biomarkers, 269, 270
uterine contractions, 267-268
Preeclampsia, 45, 70, 82, 148, 150, 162, 163, 186, 188, 219, 220, 221, 262, 263, 655
Pregnancy Outcomes in Community Health Study, 729
Pregnancy Risk Assessment Monitoring System, 105, 120
Premature rupture of membranes (PROM).
See also Preterm premature rupture of membranes
corticosteroid therapy, 297
defined, 182
emotional and affective factors, 111
lead exposure and, 247
mechanisms, 183, 220
nutrition and, 95
occupational fatigue and, 98
prolonged, 70
smoking and, 90
Prenatal care.
See also Neonatal intensive care units;
Perinatal care
access to, 9, 19, 26-27, 34, 36, 64, 133, 143, 273, 282, 316
data reporting on, 79, 81
focus of, 263
Medicaid eligibility, 19, 465
and preterm birth rate, 131, 139, 143, 265, 465, 633
prior reports on, 34
racial/ethnic disparities and, 26-27, 36, 64, 131, 133, 679
socioeconomic conditions and, 133, 135, 143
stress and, 181
time of initiation, 79, 81, 606
ultrasound standard, 9, 64, 83
Prenatal counseling, 651
Prenatal education, 101
Prenatal stress, maternal
animal models, 102, 180
behavioral response, 180-181
biological responses, 101, 110, 144, 179-180, 626
and birth weight, 104, 180
catastrophic events, 24, 27, 105-106, 107, 111, 121, 180
chronic exposures, 24, 27, 105, 106-107, 110, 111, 121, 135, 137, 142, 180, 626
community context, 137, 142, 143-144
coping strategies, 137, 180
cultural considerations, 26, 36, 111-112, 142
defined, 177
developmental effects, 102
domestic/personal violence, 24, 110, 135
emotional components, 24, 102, 103, 104, 107-109, 110, 111, 121-122
OCR for page 765
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
fetal response, 71, 102, 104
gestational age and, 104
household strain, 110
immune and inflammatory processes, 101, 110, 144, 179-180
intervention trials, 101
life events, 24, 103, 104-105, 108, 112, 121, 132, 135, 181, 625
linking mechanisms, 110-111
measuring, 146
methodological issues, 101, 103-104, 146, 180
and neurobehavioral indices, 102
neuroendocrine processes, 144, 179
observational studies, 101
occupational/work, 47, 97, 109-110, 135
physiologic reactivity, 111
and placental clock, 177-181
and racial/ethnic disparities, 105, 106-107, 109, 112, 113-114, 130, 132, 133
racism and discrimination and, 24, 113-114, 123, 132, 136
reduction, 273, 282
research recommendations, 122-123
and risk of preterm birth, 265
socioeconomic conditions and, 27, 97, 106-107, 112, 113, 135, 142
unintended pregnancy and, 120, 135
vulnerable time during pregnancy, 108
Preterm Birth Among Inner City Women:
Bacterial Vaginosis, Stressors and Race project, 729
Preterm labor, 608-609.
See also Parturition process
antibiotic therapy, 273, 295-296
anxiety and, 108, 111
bed rest, 275
clinical evidence, 263
contraction monitoring, 274, 275, 276
diagnosis, 12, 220, 268, 273, 284-287, 289-290
efficacy of interventions, 289
ethical issues, 287
genetic markers, 223
history of, 107, 274, 275
infections/inflammation and, 211, 295
racial/ethnic disparities, 77
and risk of preterm birth, 267-268, 286-287, 608
sexual activity and, 99
symptoms, 284
tocolytic agents and, 184, 273, 275, 276, 280, 285, 289, 290-295
twins, 275
Preterm Prediction Study, 93, 94, 271-272
Preterm premature rupture of membranes (PPROM), 608.
See also Premature rupture of membranes
antibiotic therapy and, 278, 296, 727
genetic susceptibility, 211-212, 223
potential mechanisms, 183, 190-191, 211
previous, 189
racial/ethnic disparities, 77-78, 211-212
risk factors, 189-190, 608-609
uteroplacental thrombosis and, 182-183
Prevention of preterm birth.
See also Treatment interventions
antibiotic therapy, 22, 132, 274, 275, 276-280
cerclage, 273, 274, 281-282
early detection and suppression of labor, 264, 273, 275-276
economic evaluation, 427-428
efficacy of interventions, 12, 264, 272-283, 633
focus of efforts, 3, 264
medical interventions, 273-280
neighborhood interventions, 143
nonmedical interventions, 273, 274, 282-283
preconception care, 264, 278-279
progesterone supplements, 272, 273, 274, 280-281
research needs, 4
surgical interventions, 273, 281-282
Prevotella, 269
Progesterone
antagonist, 194
and parturition process, 171, 172, 173, 174, 179, 181, 187, 192
receptor, 173, 215
supplements, 272, 273, 274, 280-281, 727-728, 729-73
Project on Human Development in Chicago Neighborhoods, 143
Prolactin, 214
Prostacyclin (PGI2), 171
Prostaglandins
H2 synthase, 173
OCR for page 766
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
and parturition process, 96, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174-175, 177, 178, 184, 185, 186, 191, 195, 251
receptors, 174, 215
Protease-activated receptors, 182
Proteinuria, 149
Proteoaminoglycans, 174-175
Proteomics, 219-221, 272
Psychosocial factors.
See also Prenatal stress, maternal
emotional response and affective states, 110-111, 121-122
individual-level perspective, 37, 89, 123
intendedness of pregnancy, 24, 118, 120-121, 123
personal resources, 118-120, 123
research recommendations, 122-123
social support, 115-118, 122, 136
violence, 24
Public health databases, 79-81
Public policies and programs.
See also individual programs
coordination of, 469-470
early intervention, 28, 469-470
economic burdens of preterm birth, 28, 456-472
education, 28, 456, 460
expenditures, 456-463
financing health care, 28, 456-460, 462-63, 464-466, 470
foster care, 456, 458, 463
income supports, 28, 456, 457, 459, 460-462, 470
juvenile justice, 458, 463
options for improving outcomes, 464-472
pro-family, 471
quality-of-care initiatives, 466-469
research recommendations, 6-7, 28-29, 474-475, 479, 491-492
social reforms, 470-472
Puerto Rican women, 49, 129
Pyelonephritis, 279
Q
Quality of care
managed care and, 467
measures of, 467
NICU, 18, 20, 466
perinatal, 466-469
prenatal, 18-19, 20
racial/ethnic disparities, 77
regionalization and, 20, 467-469, 676
Quality of life, 383-386, 428, 663, 668, 669
R
Racial/ethnic disparities, 638-639.
See also individual racial or ethnic groups
access to care, 315, 678
behavioral and social factors, 26, 27, 36, 92, 100, 129-131, 133
birth weight, 25, 63, 70, 76, 77, 105, 112, 113, 114, 121, 130, 138-139, 140, 154, 209
classification of racial and ethnic groups, 48, 221
community context, 136, 137, 138-139, 140
educational attainments and, 130
etiology of preterm birth, 77-78
exposure to environmental toxicants, 138, 233, 235, 240, 250-251
fetal maturation rate, 78
gene-environment interactions, 132-133, 223
genetic influences, 26, 27, 130, 132, 152, 209, 211-212, 221-223
gestational age distributions at birth, 619
gestational age estimates, 67-68, 76-78, 80, 612
geographic differences, 638-639
infant mortality rates, 26, 36, 50-51, 76, 77, 78, 112, 113, 130, 315-316, 630, 638-639
infections, 26, 27, 36, 50-51, 100, 130, 132, 133, 278
infertility problems, 158
interpregnancy interval, 153
intra- and inter-group variations, 129, 146
life-course perspective, 37
marital status-related risks, 125, 127, 128
maternal-age-related risks, 126, 127, 128
measuring risk, 138
nativity and duration of residence and, 26, 129, 133, 140, 146, 628-629
prenatal care, 9, 26-27, 36, 64, 131, 133
prenatal stress, 26, 27, 36, 111-112, 130, 132, 133
OCR for page 767
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
psychosocial factors and, 105, 106-107, 109, 112, 113, 114, 119, 132
quality of care, 77
rates of preterm birth, 4, 5, 12, 26-27, 36, 48-49, 76, 105, 106-107, 109, 112, 113, 120-121, 126, 130, 133, 465, 631
research recommendations, 6, 26-27, 48, 147, 158, 257, 490-491
risk of preterm birth, 106-107, 109, 120-121, 126, 129-135, 149, 151, 152, 209, 233, 265, 271, 628-629
sociodemographic risk factors, 125, 126, 129-133
socioeconomic disparities, 26, 51, 106-107, 112, 113, 114, 120-121, 125, 129, 130, 133-135, 147, 250
vital record reporting, 617
Racism and discrimination, 24, 36, 113-114, 132, 471, 678
RAND Corporation, 465
Reactive airway disease, 14, 32, 319, 323-324, 422
Reactive oxygen species, 191, 205
Recombinant human erythropoietin, 329, 336
Recommendations. See Research recommendations
Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 665
Rehabilitation services, 459
Relaxin, 171, 215, 270
Renal disorders, maternal, 149
Reporting. See Data reporting on preterm birth
Reproductive research. See Clinical research on preterm birth
Reproductive Scientist Development Program, 437
Research recommendations.
See also Clinical research on preterm birth;
Funding for clinical research and training
behavioral and psychosocial risk factors, 23-26, 122-123
causes of preterm birth, 255-258
clinical and health services research, 6, 12-21, 473-474, 482-488
data collection, 6, 8-10, 84-85, 480-482
delivery of health care, 19-21, 474, 488
diagnosis and treatment, 12-13, 308-309, 483-484
economic consequences, 6, 10-12, 431, 482
etiology of preterm birth, 6, 21-23, 188, 255-256, 488-489
evaluation of public programs and policies, 6-7, 28-29, 474-475, 479, 491-492
infertility treatments, 16-18, 257-258, 485-487
multidisciplinary research centers, 6, 7-8, 473-474, 479-480
multiple gestations, 16-18, 258, 485-487
multiple risk factors, 256-257, 489-490
outcomes of preterm birth, 13-16, 349, 430-431, 484-485
priorities, 6, 8-27, 478-479, 480-491
quality of care, 18-19, 474, 487
racial/ethnic and socioeconomic disparities, 6, 26-27, 48, 257, 490-491
Respiratory distress syndrome
antenatal maternal steroids and, 77, 296, 297, 298, 299-300, 318
biological mechanisms, 66, 202
gestational age at birth and, 76, 318, 336
incidence, 318, 336
inflammation and, 205
management practices and, 343
mortality rate, 202, 318
racial/ethnic disparities, 77, 318
respiratory support, 204, 296, 318-319, 403
surfactant therapy, 202, 204, 296, 299-300, 318, 690, 728
thyrotropin releasing hormone and, 300
Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), 320-321, 707
Restrictive lung disease, maternal, 149
Resuscitation at delivery, 72, 73, 74, 82, 647, 649, 650-651, 658-659, 673-675
Retinoblastoma, 164
Retinopathy of prematurity (ROP), 317, 326, 329-331, 366, 368, 375, 378, 384, 707
Retroplacental hematomas, 183
Rhode island, 168
Risk factors for preterm birth.
See also Prediction/predictors of preterm birth
behavioral and psychosocial, 625-626
demographic, 625
efficacy of interventions by, 274-275
OCR for page 768
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
for indicated preterm birth, 149, 150, 262
medical, 624, 625
multifactoral nature of, 5, 37, 626
mutable, 626
sensitivity of biomarkers, 270
strongest factors, 12, 265-267
trends in preterm birth by, 624-627, 628-631, 632
Risk factors for rehospitalization, 716
Ritodrine, 291-292, 294-295
Robert Wood Johnson Foundation, 467
RU-486, 194
Rubella, 263, 325
Russian Federation, 42, 243
S
Salbutamol, 291
Saturated phosphatidylcholine, 66
Scoring for Neonatal Acute Physiology, 67
Scotland, 26, 133, 646, 647
Sepsis, neonatal, 76, 295, 296, 298, 323, 325, 330, 331, 334
Sexual activity, 99, 377
Sexually transmitted infections, 27, 110, 132, 133, 135, 325
Shake test, 66
Sickle cell disease, 222
Single mothers, 127, 129, 135, 606, 617, 628-629
Single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), 210, 211, 216, 224
Small for gestational age, 4, 36, 58-59, 69-70, 79, 97-98, 212, 315, 386, 387, 606, 607, 609, 637, 657
Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome, 209
SNP Consortium Ltd., 209
Social Security Administration, 461
Social support
and birth weight or fetal growth, 116, 143
conceptualizations, 115
defining and measuring, 115
emotional support, 115
information, 115
instrumental aid, 115
intervention research, 101, 115, 116-118
marital status and, 127
neighborhood environment and, 137, 143
observational studies, 115-116
and outcomes, 390
Societal costs of preterm birth.
See also Medical care costs of preterm birth
aggregate annual, 31, 47, 399
caregiver, 402, 426-427
cognitive impairment, 399, 403, 415-421, 424, 425
cost-effectiveness and cost-utility analyses, 689-690
cost-of-illness methodology, 402-403, 688, 689
data sources and search strategies, 690-691
definitions, 688-689
direct costs, 402, 415, 688, 707-717
early intervention services, 11, 399, 400, 402, 422-423, 675
economic evaluation of preventive measures, 427-428
education, 11, 47, 399, 400, 401, 402, 403, 415, 417, 423-424, 456, 457, 675, 706, 717-719
ethical issues, 673-679
family, 3, 47, 371, 402, 426-427, 459, 675, 676, 706, 712
indirect (household and labor market productivity), 11, 47, 399, 400, 402, 403, 415, 417, 425, 712, 713, 719, 720
international comparisons, 690, 692-699, 707, 710
methods, 689-691
per patient, 399, 691, 705, 707, 708, 710, 711-712
policy and research recommendations, 6, 10-12, 431, 482, 721-722
population description, 689-690
projections, 691
public programs, 28, 456-463
studies of, 691, 692-700
Society for Assisted Reproductive Technology, 165
Society for Maternal-Fetal Medicine, 33, 437
Society for Pediatric Research, 690
Sociodemographic risk factors.
See also Geographic differences;
Maternal age;
Racial/ethnic disparities;
Socioeconomic conditions
birth defects, 151
OCR for page 769
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
and impacts of preterm birth, 14-15
marital or cohabitation status, 127-129, 135, 628-629
Socioeconomic conditions
and behavioral factors, 90, 93, 133, 134-135
and birth weight, 139-140
clustering of disadvantages, 138
community context, 139-141, 142, 233
confounding in behavioral and psychosocial studies, 90, 93, 94, 97, 98, 121, 133
and costs of preterm birth, 718
distributive justice issues, 678-679
exposure to environmental toxicants, 232-233, 240, 250
infections, 26-27, 135
international comparisons, 133
mediators of preterm birth, 133-135
and multiple gestations, 135, 158
and nutrition, 94, 95, 133, 134
and outcomes of preterm birth, 379-380, 396
and personal resources, 119
prenatal care, 135
and racial/ethnic disparities, 51, 129, 130, 133-135, 147
and risk of preterm birth, 4, 5, 24, 26, 36, 51, 60, 98, 126, 133-135, 136, 470-471, 628-629
and stress, 27, 97, 106-107, 112, 135, 142
Sodium nitroprusside, 175
Solvents, 249
South Africa, 42
South Carolina, 77, 677
Spain, 26, 42, 133, 239, 247-248
Special education, 11, 47, 363, 364, 399, 400, 415, 417, 423-424, 458, 460, 673, 717-718
Special Education Expenditure Project, 424
Spina bifida, 150
Spontaneous preterm birth, defined, 36.
See also Parturition process
State Children’s Health Insurance Program (SCHIP), 19, 457, 458, 465
Stem cells, 327
Strabismus, 14, 331, 366
Streptokinase, 333-334
Stress.
See also Prenatal stress, maternal
defined, 100-101
on families, 47
neonatal, 340
oxidative, 204-205
Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, 447
Sudan, 42
Sudden infant death syndrome (SIDS), 321
Sulindac, 293
Sulfur dioxide, 22-23, 231, 233-234, 235-236, 237, 252
Superovulation therapies, 16, 17, 18, 45, 157, 160, 258
Superoxide, 199, 204
Supplemental Security Income, 28, 457, 458, 459, 460-462
Survey of Income and Program Participation, 417, 425
Sweden
end-of-life practices, 668
health care policies, 26, 166-167, 168, 470, 677
preterm birth studies and statistics, 42, 110, 133, 209, 234, 248, 351, 353, 369, 376, 677
Switzerland, 42
Sympathoadrenal-medullary (SAM) system, 179
Syphilis, 325
Systemic lupus erythematosus, 148, 149, 150
T
Taiwan, 244
Tay-Sachs disease, 222
Temporary Assistance to Needy Families, 28, 458, 459, 462, 470, 471
Terbutalin, 291, 292
Termination of pregnancy
induced, 64, 73, 657, 660, 681
spontaneous abortion, 60, 81, 188
Terrorist attacks of 9/11, 105-106, 111
Tetracycline, 276, 278
Texas, 650, 696
Th1-type cytokine, 188
Th2-type cytokines, 188
Thailand, 97-98
Theophylline, 321
Thompson, Tommy, 446
Thrombin, 177, 182-183, 191
Thrombin-antithrombin III (TAT) complex, 183, 269
OCR for page 770
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
Thrombin receptor agonist peptide type 14, 191
Thrombophilias, 82
Thromboxane B2, 205
Thyroid disease, 82
Thyroxine, 336
Title V Maternal and Child Health programs, 28, 458, 462-469
Tobacco use
and birth weight, 90, 217, 283
confounding in environmental studies, 235
cultural context, 142
gene-smoking interaction, 217
and gestational age at birth, 622
and hypertension, 91
interventions, 101
and IUGR, 217
maternal age and, 92
as outcome of preterm birth, 371
prenatal stress and, 181
and preterm birth, 36, 90, 91-92, 130-131, 134, 136, 217, 266, 317, 622, 630-631
prevalence, 217
and PPROM, 189, 191
racial/ethnic disparities and, 27, 36, 92, 131, 317, 679
and rehospitalization risk, 716
second-hand smoke, 22, 231, 245-247, 252, 321
socioeconomic conditions and, 90, 133, 134
unintended pregnancy and, 120
Tocolytic (labor-inhibiting) agents, 184, 273, 280, 290-295
Toll-like receptors, 187, 211, 214
Topiramate, 199
Toxics Release Inventory, 253
Toxoplasma, 325
Training clinical researchers
costs, 438
funding, 436, 437
length of training, 438-439
Transforming growth factor, 214
Treatment interventions.
See also Antibiotics;
Life-sustaining medical treatment
antenatal, to reduce neonatal morbidity, 12, 77, 74, 287, 289, 291, 295-300, 318
CNI complications, 333-334, 336
corticosteroids, 296-299, 334
informed decision making, 287-288, 289
maternal transfer, 12-13, 287, 289, 291, 292, 295, 300-301
off-label medicine use, 447-448
strategies and effectiveness, 12, 288-301
tocolytic drugs, 184, 273, 275, 276, 290-295
Trends in preterm birth
ART and, 45-47, 617
data reporting issues, 635-636
delivery method, 43-44, 622, 623
extremely low risk mothers, 622, 624
geographic differences, 40-41, 614-617, 618, 620-621, 630, 631
by gestational age, 2-3, 31, 38-39, 614, 615, 616, 619, 623
hypertensive or diabetic mother, 617, 622
infant mortality rate, 39-40, 627, 630-631, 632-625
international comparisons, 42-43
marital status, 617
maternal age, 44-45, 617, 632
multiple births, 45-47, 617, 622, 623
racial/ethnic disparities, 614, 616, 617, 619-622, 631
rates, 2-3, 38, 406, 604, 614-617
by risk factor, 624-627, 628-631, 632
singleton, 39
smokers, 617, 622
socioeconomic status, 622-623
Trichloroacetic acid, 244
Trichomonas vaginalis, 99, 277, 279
Trihalomethanes, 244, 245
Tryptophan, 219
Tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), 132, 174, 179, 185, 191, 200, 205, 211, 212, 213-214, 217, 269, 271
U
Ultrasound
access to, 64, 611
cervical evaluation, 268-269, 271, 281-282, 285
costs and benefits, 64-65, 68
cranial, 68
gestational age measurement, 9, 10, 59, 62-65, 68-69, 78, 80, 81, 83, 85, 610-611, 612
OCR for page 771
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
neuroimaging, 333, 335
safety, 65
standards of practice, 9, 64, 83
timing of, 80
training of personnel, 83, 611
weight estimates by, 70
Underweight women, 109, 148, 151, 154, 188
Unintended pregnancy, 24, 120-121, 135
United Arab Emirates, 153
United Kingdom, 42, 385, 394-395, 409, 376, 668, 675-676, 690, 692, 693, 696, 697, 712
United Nations Children’s Fund (UNICEF), 42
University of California at San Francisco, 664
University of Chicago, 665, 672, 674
University of Michigan, 727
University of North Carolina, 661
Urban Institute, 463
Ureaplasma urealyticum, 185, 270, 276
Urinary tract infections
maternal, 110, 132, 133, 184, 276
neonatal, 325
U.S. Collaborative Perinatal Project, 238
U.S. Department of Education, 15
Office of Special Education Programs, 395
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 446, 448
U.S. National Maternal and Infant Health Survey, 209
U.S. Office of Management and Budget, 48
Utah Birth Defects Prevention Network, 150
Uterine
abnormality, 266
artery resistance, 102
contractility/contractions, 170, 171, 172, 174, 175, 182, 185, 215, 251, 267-268, 291
overdistension, 181, 269
stretch, 170, 171, 181
tumors, 158
Uterine-derived catecholestrogen, 187
Uteroplacental
genetic pathways, 214-215
insufficiency, 63, 69, 611
thrombosis, 182-183
V
Vaginal bleeding, 12, 62, 183, 191, 265
Vaginal microflora, 100
Vaginosis. See Bacterial vaginosis
Vascular epithelial growth factor, 187
Ventricular peritoneal (VP) shunt, 333-334
Vermont, 651
Vermont Oxford Network, 404, 408, 409, 468, 469
Very low birth weight, 21, 47, 59, 79, 105, 113, 114, 196, 202-203, 325, 403-404, 409, 423, 468, 646, 657
Viability threshold, 65, 314, 448, 450-451, 647, 658-662, 681
Vietnam, 243, 250
Violence, 24, 110, 138
Virginia, 41, 671-672
Visual processing and perceptual deficits, 362-363, 365, 368-369, 394.
See also Ophthalmic impairment
Vital records, 43
Vitamin A, 319
Vitamin C, 24, 95, 189, 274
Vitamin E, 274, 331, 334
Vitamin K, 300, 334
W
Wayne State University, 727
Weight. See Maternal weight
West Africa, 240
Whites (non-Hispanic)
alcohol use, 27
birth certificate data, 81
birth weights, 77, 130, 140, 209, 679
BMI (maternal), 151
douching practices, 100
educational attainment, 130
estimates of gestational age in, 67-68
illicit drug use, 27
income and net worth, 146
infant mortality rate, 51, 130, 630
infections/inflammation, 27, 100, 132, 222
infertility, 158
interpregnancy interval, 153
IUGR, 107
marital status, 128
maternal age, 128
multiple births, 617
OCR for page 772
Preterm Birth: Causes, Consequences, and Prevention
neighborhood environment, 137, 138, 140, 143
prenatal care, 131
rate of preterm birth, 5, 26, 48, 76, 128, 130, 315, 614, 616, 617, 620-621, 622, 678, 679
risk of preterm birth, 209, 212, 265
stress, 107, 108, 132
tobacco use, 27, 92, 131, 617
WIC program, 470
Wisconsin, 242, 659, 665, 666, 682, 693
Women’s Reproductive Health Research program, 437
World Health Organization, 42, 57, 72, 383
Y
Yaffe, S., 605
Yeast infection, 277
Z
Zinc supplementation, 95
Zygote intrafallopian transfer (ZIFT), 155, 156.
See also Assisted reproductive technologies
Representative terms from entire chapter:
increased access
