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Taking Science to School: Learning and Teaching Science in Grades K-8
Index
A
AAAS. See American Association for the Advancement of Science
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Taking Science to School: Learning and Teaching Science in Grades K-8
Index
A
AAAS. See American Association for the Advancement of Science
Abilities, of children. See Children’s abilities
“Absolutist” view of knowledge, 173, 175
Abstraction, information at various levels of, 94
Adding It Up, 22
Ages, for introduction of key ideas, 247
Alcohol, mixing with water, 240
Ambiguity, involved in interpretation, 174–175
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), 43, 178, 217
Project 2061, 216–217, 318
American Educational Research Association, 307
American Federation of Teachers, 307
Analogical reasoning, 114
Anchoring intuitions, 114
Animals, classifying, 66–67
Anomalous data, 111
Argumentation
in K-8 classrooms, 117, 258–259
in the language of science, 33, 171
plausibility of, 187
supporting, 203
talk and, 187–189
teachers uncomfortable with, 187
Aristotle, 62
Arizona, 299
Articulation, supporting, 278–279
Assessment.
See also Benchmarking assessment systems;
Classroom-based assessment practices;
Formative assessment
by conversation, 281
curriculum-embedded, 281, 320
large-scale, 247
ongoing, 344
planned-for, 281–283
recommendations for policy and practice, 348–349
reflective, 284
Atlas of Science Literacy, 216
Atomic-molecular theory, developing an initial understanding of, 32, 72, 102–103, 111, 220, 222, 239–245
Atomic-molecular theory of matter learning progressions
for grades K-2, 226–233
for grades 3-5, 233–239
for grades 6-8, 239–245
Attention, 302
Attitudes, 195–201
beliefs about oneself and about science, ability to “do science,” 196–197
goals, values, and interest, desire to “do science,” 197–200
identity, feeling of “belonging,” 200–201
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B
Bay Area School Reform Collaborative (BASRC), 308–309
BEAR. See Berkeley Evaluation and Assessment Research Center
Beliefs, 173–174.
See also Competencies of K-8 students
about causal mechanism and plausibility, 143–146
about oneself and about science, ability to “do science,” 196–197
young children’s understanding of, 78–79
Belvedere, 274
Benchmarking assessment systems, for coherent instruction, 319–322, 344
Benchmarks for Science Literacy, 16, 35, 44, 216
Berkeley Evaluation and Assessment Research Center (BEAR), 320
BGuILE, 269
Biological Sciences Curriculum Study, 13
Biology, children’s early conceptual understanding of naïve, 66–69
Black students, 315
Bohr, Niels, 244
Book of nature, 189
Bootstrapping, 154
Border crossing, 201
“Boundary-filling” conception of measurement, 155
Bracketing, 138
“Bridging analogies” strategy, 114
Burning, concepts of, 101
C
California, 307–309
Categorization, 74
Causal nexus, 228
Causation
beliefs about the mechanisms of, 59, 143–146, 148
correlation versus, 266
hypotheses about, 140–142, 144
multiple, 75
and their effects, 63
Ceiling effects, 298
Cells, misconceptions about, 100
Centralized education policy, Americans’ distaste for, 16
Certainty, 171
Cheche Konnen Center, 194, 266, 311–312
ChemStudy, 13
Children’s abilities, 130
Children’s ideas about the mind, 169–170
tasks used to study, 65
Children’s learning of science, 51–210
foundations for science learning in young children, 53–92
generating and evaluating scientific evidence and explanations, 129–167
knowledge and understanding of the natural world, 93–128
participation in scientific practices and discourse, 186–210
understanding how scientific knowledge is constructed, 168–185
Children’s reasoning, 3, 222
China, 96
Classroom-based assessment practices, 247
and student learning outcomes, 285
Classroom discourse, 268, 299
Classrooms.
See also Instruction in K-8 science classrooms
as scientific communities, 40
that promote productive participation, 202–203
Cognition
epistemic, 173, 175, 178
“situated,” 29
Cognitive inference, 75, 103
Cognitive processes, 130.
See also Noncognitive factors
basic research in, 42, 52
interaction with social factors, 29
in preschool children, 53
Cognitive science, 63
of science itself, 66
“Cognitively guided instruction,” 312
Coherent instructional systems, 317–322, 345
benchmarking assessment systems, 319–322
curriculum materials, 318–319
Collaborations, 188, 263, 319
Committee on Science Learning, Kindergarten Through Eighth Grade, 21–23
charge to, 21
Commonsense properties of materials, 229
Communities.
See also Scientific communities
“communities of practice,” 308
“community of learners” approach, 275
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Competencies of K-8 students, 19, 172
beliefs about, gender factors in, 196–197
Complexity, of science learning, 212
“Composite culture,” 276
Comprehension, reading, 274–275
Comprehensive Test of Basic Skills, 282
Computer-based investigations, 279
Computer simulations, 140
Computer visualization tools, 277
Concept-oriented reading instruction (CORI), 199, 259
Conceptual change, 106–118
versus developmental change, 117–118
differentiating, 108
forms of, 107–110
mechanisms of, 110–117
nature of, 106–118
restructuring a network of concepts, 108–109
Conceptual structures, 119–120
acquiring, 37
coalescing, 109
constructing new representations, 113–116
elaborating on existing, 107–108
scaffolding models, 276–278
understanding, 215
Conceptual understanding during the K-8 years, 19, 30–31, 94–106
an expanding theory of psychology, 103–104
expanding understandings of matter and its transformation, 101–103
extending and changing understandings of naïve physics, 96–98
extending and revising naïve biology, 98–101
literature on, 51
summary of knowledge growth across the domains, 105–106
toward a mature cosmology, 104–105
Concrete experiences, 105
with the natural world, 260
progressions involving, 54
Confounding, 134, 142
Congress, 15
Consensus view, 170
Conservation of matter, 71
Construal principles, 106
Constructivist epistemologies, 177
Content.
See also Strands of scientific proficiency
dual focus on, 304
including in standards, 219
Contingency-based movement, 64, 75
Continuum, of formative assessment, 280
Contrastive tests, 144
Control-of-variables strategy, 150–151, 190
Convocation on Science and Mathematics, 15
Core ideas
emergent, 119, 223
learning progressions needed for, 226
research and development needed in identifying, 178–179, 352
CORI. See Concept-oriented reading instruction
Correlation, versus causation, 266
Cosmology, toward a mature, 104–105
Counterintuitive findings, 146
Covariation evidence
complex patterns of, 61
evaluating, 138–141, 145
identifying patterns of, 137
versus noncovariation, 139, 143
reasoning about, 75
Credentialing requirements, 300
Critical areas for research and development, 351–355
curriculum and instruction, 352–353
diversity and equity, 354–355
evaluation and scale-up, 353–354
identifying core ideas and developing learning progressions, 352
learning across the four strands, 351–352
professional development and teacher learning, 353
Cues, 64, 75
Cultural institutions, 200
Cultural values and norms, 69, 101, 190–194, 199–200, 340
Current approaches in policy and practice, 20, 182, 214–219, 253–255, 267
curriculum and instruction in K-8 science classrooms, 217–219
curriculum standards, 216–217
progressing beyond, 231–245
science process skills, 215–216
Current textbooks, 244
Current theories of science, 52, 107
limitations of, 27
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Curriculum-embedded assessment, 281, 320–321
Curriculum in K-8 science classrooms, 217–219.
See also Science curriculum reforms of the 1960s
in coherent instructional systems, 318–319
major findings and conclusions concerning, 340–344
materials for, 268, 318–319, 321, 353
modularized, 318–319
not dumbing down, 4
political costs of, 14
recommendations for next generation, both state and national, 5, 348
recommendations for policy and practice, 348–349
research and development needed in, 352–353
“spiral,” 341
standards for, 216–217, 246–247
D
Data
anomalous, 111
from assessments, sharing with students, 322
in the language of science, 31–33
reflecting on, 148
rounds of collecting, 132
supporting modeling, 155–157
trends in, 266
Data-driven discoveries, 135
Data modeling practices, 261
Data quality, evaluating, 27
Data sets, 268
Debates, 266
formal, 33
policy, 11
Deficit assumptions, 336
Delaware, 299
Design challenges, 45
in conducting empirical investigations in K-8 classrooms, 256–257
future, 223
in learning progressions, 221–222
Desire to “do science,” 197–200
goals for, 197–198
intrinsic motivation and interest, 199–200
and values, 198–199
Detroit Public Schools, 312
Developers of standards, curricula, and assessment, recommendations for, 5, 13–14, 348
Developmental change
cognitive, 52
and learning and instruction, 41–45
literature of, 219
that is not conceptual change, 117–118
Diagrams, supporting modeling, 157–159
Digestion, children’s understanding of, 68
Disabilities, students with, 202, 266
Disciplinary knowledge, 220
Disciplinary language, 267
“Disciplined perception,” 154
Discourse
difficulty of, 212
logical, 33
structure of, 187
Discovery argumentation, example of, 114–115
“Discrepant events,” catalyzing conceptual change, 113
“Distributed expertise” activity structures, 275
Diversity in science education, 340
major findings and conclusions concerning, 346–347
research and development needed in, 354–355
Dogs, classifying, 108
“Doing science,” 4, 256, 268
professional development programs in, 311–312
Domain-general developmental sequences, 28, 55, 220
Domain-specific knowledge, 55, 133, 148, 223, 336
E
E. coli bacteria, identifying, 143
Early conceptual understanding of natural systems, 56–74
earth systems and cosmology, 73–74
naïve biology, 66–69
naïve physics, 56–63
naïve psychology, 63–66
substances and their transformations, 69–73
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Earth Science Curriculum Study, 13
Earth systems and cosmology, children’s early conceptual understanding of, 73–74
Earthquakes, 31
Education.
See also Science education
importance of teaching science, 34
major findings and conclusions concerning diversity in, 346–347
strands of scientific proficiency, 36–41
Elementary grades, inquiry and models, as evidence of student learning, 260–261
Embedding instructional guidance in students’ performance of scientific tasks, 271–278
conceptual models, 276–278
scaffolding, 272–278
scientific process, 273–274
social interaction, 274–276
Emergent core ideas, 223
Empirical investigations, conducting in K-8 classrooms, 256–257
Energy, introducing ideas about, 246
Engagement, defining, 194–195
Engaging Schools, 196
“Engineering context,” 135
English-language learners, 266, 303–304, 314
Latino, 314–315
Epistemic model, 169–173
Equity in science education
major findings and conclusions concerning, 346–347
research and development needed in, 354–355
Errors
about the physical world, 61
mathematical descriptions of, 157
mental, 104
of representation, 76
ESRU cycles, 282–283
Essentialist bias, 68
Ethnic factors. See People of color
Ethnographic case analyses, 202
Evaluation, research and development needed in, 353–354
Evaluation of evidence across the K-8 years, 137–142, 145
covariation evidence, 138–140
evidence in the context of investigations, 140–142
trends in, 131–142
Evaluation of scientific evidence and explanations, 129–167
asking questions and formulating hypotheses, 131–132
conclusions, 159–160
designing experiments, 132–136
importance of experience and instruction, 149–152
knowledge and skill in modeling, 152–159
one strand of scientific proficiency, 37, 39
role of prior knowledge, 142–149
Evidence
covariation versus noncovariation, 139
generating and evaluating, 245
in the language of science, 31–33
that contradicts prior beliefs, evaluating, 146–149
Evidence of student learning, 260–264
elementary grades, with inquiry and models, 260–261
middle grades, with problem-based and conceptual change approaches, 261–264
Evolutionary theory
battles over teaching, 12
developing an initial understanding of, 100, 222–224
Experience
controlled, 266
importance of, 130, 149–152
inquiry, 179
with liquids, 233–234
project-based, 263
Experiments, 35, 142, 253, 268
designing, 131–136, 147, 271
interpreting, 147
laboratory, 13, 256
self-directed, 132, 137
theory-driven approach to, 135
thought, 102
“try-and-see” approach to, 135
Explanations
of conceptual change, adding new (deeper) levels of, 109–110
in K-8 classrooms, 148, 258–259, 337
testing, 30
written, 274
Explanatory models, of science, 39
Explicit awarenesses, 69
instruction in, 94
modeling, 236
Exploratory studies, 131
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F
Facts
acquiring, 37
role of, in science, 26, 31
False belief, understanding, 65
FAST. See Foundational Approaches to Science Teaching curriculum
Federal agencies that support professional development, recommendations for, 7, 350
Feedback
looping, 280
periodic, 321
Folk cosmology, 74
Folk pedagogy, 301–302
Force, physicists’ notions of, 97
Formal operational thought, 44
Formative assessment, 279–285
classroom-based assessment practices and student learning outcomes, 285
and student learning, 281–284
Forms of conceptual change, 107–110
adding new (deeper) levels of explanation, 109–110
elaborating on an existing conceptual structure, 107–108
restructuring a network of concepts, 108–109
Foundational Approaches to Science Teaching (FAST) curriculum, 320
“Framework theory,” 73
Full Option Science System, 320
Future directions for policy, practice, and research, 331–355
agenda for research and development, 350–355
conclusions and recommendations, 333–355
major findings and conclusions, 334–347
recommendations for policy and practice, 347–350
G
Galapagos island system, 261, 269–271
Gases, understanding the behavior of, 101, 103, 241–242
Gender factors, in competency beliefs, 196–197
Generating scientific evidence and explanations, 129–167
asking questions and formulating hypotheses, 131–132
conclusions, 159–160
designing experiments, 132–136
importance of experience and instruction, 149–152
knowledge and skill in modeling, 152–159
one strand of scientific proficiency, 37, 39
role of prior knowledge, 142–149
trends across the K-8 years, 131–142
Geometry, 154
Georgia, 300
Goals
and the desire to “do science,” 197–198
for elementary and middle school science, 34–36
Grades K-2 learning progression for the atomic-molecular theory of matter, 226–233
developing an understanding of materials and measurement, 226–231
progressing beyond current practice, 231–233
Grades 3-5 learning progression for the atomic-molecular theory of matter, 233–239
developing an explicit macroscopic understanding of matter, 233–237
progressing beyond current practice, 237–239
Grades 6-8 learning progression for the atomic-molecular theory of matter, 239–245
developing an initial understanding of the atomic-molecular theory, 239–243
progressing beyond current practice, 244–245
Gravitation, 32
Group processes, 19
agreement within, 4, 276
diverse, 314–315
The Growth of Logical Thinking from Childhood to Adolescence, 43
Guidance.
See also Scaffolding
explicit and implicit, 271–273
provided by the researcher, 131
Guided inquiry science instruction, 259
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H
Haiti, 266
Harvard University, 173
Hawaii, 299
Helicobacter pylori, 29
High-stakes testing, 319
Historical context of U.S. science education, 12–18
emergence of standards-based reform, 15–18
legacy of the 1960s science curriculum reforms, 12–15
Historical tracing, 229
How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience and School, 22, 42, 336
Human body, children’s understanding of, 68, 99, 111
Hypotheses.
See also Theory and hypothesis
causal, 140
considering, 268
evaluating alternative, 76
formulating, 131–132
revising, 132
“Hypothesis-oriented” approaches, 135
“Hypothetico-deductive” model-based reasoning, 241
I
Ideas, young children’s understanding of, 78–79
Identity, 195–201
ability to “do science,” 196–197
beliefs about oneself and about science, 196–197
desire to “do science,” 197–200
feeling of “belonging,” 200–201
goals, values, and interest, 197–200
Illinois, 300, 317
Implicit reasoning, 77
Indeterminacy, 141
Individual cognitive activity, 3, 203
Individual interest, 199
Induction, 74
Infants’ understanding of the physical world, 57–59
Inference strategies
cognitive, 75, 103
multiple, 142
Infrastructure, needed for researching science education, 351
Inquiry
as evidence of student learning in the elementary grades, 260–261
experiences with, 179
Institute of Medicine, 196, 304
Instruction in K-8 science classrooms, 217–219, 247
aims of, 257
approaches and strategies, 252–253
designing, 3
explicit, 94
factors affecting quality of, 296–297
how to teach, recommendations for policy and practice, 349
importance of, 130, 149–152
improving, 17
major findings and conclusions concerning, 340–344
professional development programs in, 312–314
research and development needed in, 352–353
suboptimal, 55
Instructional congruence, 192
Instructional support, importance of, 133
Intellectual roles, 275
“Intent participation,” 191
Interactions.
See also Social interactions
and force, 97
multidimensional, 6, 178, 349
with simulations, 268
with texts in K-8 classrooms, 259–260
Interest
development of, 200
individual, 199
situational, 199–200
Interpretation, ambiguity involved in, 39, 174–175
Intervention studies, 148–150, 253, 255, 257, 268
Intraindividual variability, 4, 134, 142
Intrinsic motivation and interest, in the desire to “do science,” 199–200
Investigations
evaluating evidence in the context of, 140–142
sustained, 343
Israel, 99
Iterative processes, 27
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J
Japan, 99
Journaling, thoughts about science, 299
Justifications, 80
K
Kansas, 299
Kawasaki’s syndrome, 143
Kits. See Science kits
Knowing What Students Know, 22
Knowledge
“absolutist” view of, 173
acquiring new, over an existing base of concepts, 110–111
change process of, 94, 147
evaluating one’s own, 27
growth of, across the domains, 105–106
in modeling, 152–159
personal, 245
young children’s understanding of, 78–79
Knowledge construction. See Meaning-making practices
Knowledge-lean tasks, 133
Knowledge of science, of science teachers, 297–300
Knowledge of the natural world, 93–128
changes in conceptual understanding during the K-8 years, 94–106
conclusions, 118–120
nature of conceptual change, 106–118
“Knowledge problematic” epistemologies, 176
L
Laboratory experiments, 13, 256
Language of science, 30–33, 267
argument, 33
data and evidence, 31–33
disciplinary, 267
theory and hypothesis, 30–31
Large-scale assessment, 247
Learners
major findings and conclusions concerning, 334–340
mental models of, 302
Learning
across the four strands, research and development needed in, 351–352
earlier theories of, 19
major findings and conclusions concerning, 334–340
mental models of, 302
recent developments in, 18–20
“Learning cycle,” 14
Learning goals, 20, 280
“Learning hierarchies,” 215
Learning progressions, 213–250, 297
conclusions, 246–247
constructing, 225–246
current approaches in policy and practice, 214–219
defining, 219–222
design challenges, 221–222
initial work on, 222–226
key characteristics, 220–221
research and development needed in developing, 352
Learning progressions for the atomic-molecular theory of matter, 226–246, 359–365
grades K-2, 226–233
grades 3-5, 233–239
grades 6-8, 239–245
limitations, 246
Legacy of the 1960s science curriculum reforms, 12–15
Limitations
of current theories of science, 27
of K-8 students, 56, 172
memory, 137
of one’s scientific reasoning, 40
Liquids, experiences with, 202, 233–234
Local leaders in science education, recommendations for, 6, 16, 349
Longitudinal studies, 352
M
Macroscopic understandings, 102, 239
Maine, 299
Man: A Course of Study, 15
Maps, supporting modeling, 157–159
Maryland, 299
Mastery learning, 198, 320
Materials
developing an understanding of, in grades K-2, 226–231
resource centers for, 319
teachers’ interpretations of, 269
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Mathematics
interest in, 199
supporting modeling, 153–155
theories expressed in form of, 32
Matter and its transformation
developing an explicit macroscopic understanding of, in grades 3-5, 233–237
expanding understandings of, 72, 101–103
Maturation, change factors based in, 95–97
Meaning-making practices, 215, 224–225
Measurement
“boundary-filling” conception of, 155
developing an understanding of, in grades K-2, 154, 226–231
recording, 31
Mechanisms of conceptual change, 110–117
acquiring new knowledge over an existing base of concepts, 110–111
constructing new conceptual representations, 113–116
information about, 143
metacognitively guided learning, 111–113
strengthening new systems of ideas, 116–117
Media attention, 11, 18
Medieval impetus theorists, 62
Memorization, 299, 338
Memory
limitations of, 137
short-term storage span of, 95
Memory skills, of children, 142
Mental models, 78, 82
of learning, 59–60, 145, 302
Merck Institute for Science Education, 307
Meta-analyses, 322
Metacognitively guided learning, 35–36, 82, 111–113, 137, 150
Metaconceptual activities in grades 1-6, progression of increasingly sophisticated, 180–181
Middle grades, problem-based and conceptual change approaches as evidence of student learning, 261–264
Minorities, underrepresented in science, 11, 20, 303
Misconceptions, 61, 82, 98–101
Mississippi, 300
Model building, 27, 232
data supporting, 155–157
“direct,” 76
explicit, 236
in K-8 classrooms, 258–259
students with prior experience in, 237
studies of, 152–153
Models
epistemology of, 172
as evidence of student learning in the elementary grades, 260–261
explanatory, 39
of instruction, ineffective, 211
of the natural world, building and critiquing, 131
scaffolding, 276–278
Modules, curricular, 318–319
Motivation, 97, 195–201
beliefs about oneself and about science, ability to “do science,” 196–197
goals, values, and interest, desire to “do science,” 197–200
identity, feeling of “belonging,” 200–201
Muller-Lyer optical illusions, 231
Multicultural issues, 303
Multidimensionality
of interactions among models, 178
of the practice of science, 286
Multidisciplinary approach, 333
Multiple inference strategies, 142
Mutations, studying, 258
N
NAEP. See National Assessment of Educational Progress
Naïve biology
children’s early conceptual understanding of, 66–69
extending and revising, 98–101
Naïve physics
children’s early conceptual understanding of, 56–63
extending and changing understandings of, 96–98
Naïve psychology, children’s early conceptual understanding of, 63–66
A Nation at Risk, 15–16
National Academy of Sciences, Convocation on Science and Mathematics, 15
National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 20, 263
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National Association of State Directors of Teacher Education and Certification, 300
National Center for Education Statistics, 303
National Commission for Excellence in Education, 15–16
National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, standards established by, 300
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics, 154–155
National Education Longitudinal Study, 298
National Research Council (NRC), 22, 42, 112, 195–196, 216, 280, 304, 318
National Science Education Standards (NSES), 16, 34, 38, 216
National Science Foundation (NSF), 12, 14–15, 307, 314, 318
National Staff Development Council, 307
Nationwide action, roadmap for, 4
Natural world
building and critiquing models of, 131
concrete experiences with, 260
observing, 258
understanding, 26, 41, 93–128
using scientific explanations of, 244
Negotiation, 263
Network of conceptual change concepts, restructuring, 108–109
New levels of descriptions, adding, 109–110
New systems of ideas, strengthening, 116–117
No Child Left Behind Act, 11, 17, 22, 354
Noncognitive factors, 30
Nonmainstream children, 36, 201
underrepresented in science, 11, 20, 303
Nonsense sounds, 64
Notebooks, use of, 135
NRC. See National Research Council
NSES. See National Science Education Standards
NSF. See National Science Foundation
O
Observation
across the K-8 years, 31, 136–137, 191, 268
generating, 132
indirect, 31
scientific, 35
sensory, 31
Ohio, 315
Orientation, 159
Oversimplification, 191
P
Participation in scientific practices and discourse, 186–210
conclusions, 203
cultural values and norms, 190–194
one strand of scientific proficiency, 37, 40
productive, 194–203
talk and argument, 187–189
Patterns of covariation evidence, identifying, 137
People of color, underrepresented in science, 20, 303
Personal knowledge, 245
Physical Science Study Committee, 13
Physical world. See Natural world
Physics
children’s early conceptual understanding of naïve, 56–63
everyday, 62
“Piggybacking,” 193
Planned-for assessment, 281–283
Plate tectonics, 31
Plausibility
of argument, 187
beliefs about, 143–146
Poincare, Henri, 26
“Points of contact,” 193
Policy
debates over, 11
future directions for, 331–355
recommendations for, 347–350
Political costs, curricular, 14
Practice of science
future directions for, 331–355
importance of, 133
as multidimensional, 286
recommendations for, 347–350
Pre-service training, 300
Precision, 76
“Prediction-oriented” approaches, 135, 148
Preschool children, 114, 182, 227
cognitive development in, 53
sense of mechanical causality in, 61
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Prior knowledge, 19, 130–132, 138, 142–149, 160, 173, 268
beliefs about causal mechanism and plausibility, 143–146
evaluating evidence that contradicts prior beliefs, 146–149
familiarity or strength of, 137
Probabilistic relationships, 18, 75
Problem-based learning curriculum, 188, 312
Problem solving, 271–272
“Process skills,” 14
Process view. See Science as a process
Productive participation, 194–203
classrooms that promote, 202–203
motivation, attitudes, and identity, 195–201
Professional development programs, 300, 310–314
in doing science, 311–312
in engineering instructional improvement, 312–314
recommendations for federal agencies that support, 7, 350
recommendations for sustained science-specific, 7, 350
supporting effective science instruction, recommendations for policy and practice, 349–350
and teacher learning, research and development needed in, 353
in understanding student ideas, 312
Proficiency in science, 2, 298, 334, 338.
See also Strands of scientific proficiency
of adults versus children, 134
baseline, 300
Programme for International Student Assessment, 316
Progress beyond current practice
in grades K-2, 231–233
in grades 3-5, 237–239
in grades 6-8, 244–245
Progress Portfolio tool, 278
Progressions. See Learning progressions
Project 2061, 216–217, 318
Project-based experiences, 263, 268
Project SEPIA. See Science Education through Portfolio Instruction and Assessment project
Psychology
children’s early conceptual understanding of naïve, 63–66
expanding theory of, 103–104
and the study of science, 130
Psychometric data analyses, 320
Public scientific issues, 11, 203
Q
Quality
of data, evaluating, 27
of science education, 354
Questioning process, three-step, 283n
Questions
asking, 131–132
generating researchable, 192, 256, 268, 311
identifying meaningful, 304, 351
R
Race factors. See People of color
Reading comprehension, 274–275
Reagan, Ronald, 15
Reasoning, 77.
See also Analogical reasoning;
Children’s reasoning
Recommendations
for developers of standards, curricula, and assessment, 5, 348
for federal agencies that support professional development, 7, 350
on instruction, how to teach, 349
for next generation standards and curricula, both state and national, 5, 348
for policy and practice, 347–350
for presenting science as a process, 5–6, 348–349
on professional development, 6–7, 349–350
on standards, curricula, and assessment, 4–6, 348–349
for state and local leaders in science education, 6, 349
for sustained science-specific professional development for teachers, 7, 350
for teaching the four strands of scientific proficiency, 6, 349
for university-based science courses for teacher candidates, 7, 350
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Record keeping, during the K-8 years, 31, 136–137
Reflection, supporting, 278–279
Reflective assessment, 284
Reforms. See Science curriculum reforms of the 1960s
“Registers,” 189
Relativity, 32
Representational systems
conceptual structures constructing new, 113–116
data, 155–157
mathematics, 153–155
new, 237
scale models, diagrams, and maps, 157–159
spatial, 74
that support modeling, 153–159
working with scientific representations and tools, 267–268
Research
difficulty integrating base, 131, 355
future directions for, 331–355
on learning, 21
Researchers, 22
guidance provided by, 131
Resource issues, 17, 310
S
Scaffolding, 259, 272–278, 287
conceptual models, 276–278
scientific process, 273–274
social interaction, 274–276
Scale models, 79
supporting modeling, 157–159
Scaling-up, research and development needed in, 353–354
Scenario building, 22, 27, 30
Schools, major findings and conclusions concerning, 344–346
Science.
See also Strands of scientific proficiency
claims of, 31
cognitive, 63
defining, 26–33
explanatory models of, 39
history of, 32
journaling thoughts about, 299
language of, 30–33
recent developments in, 18–20
in social interactions, 265–266
understanding the nature of, 37, 39–40, 175–179
using, 40
Science: A Process Approach, 215, 224
Science as a process, 26–30
of logical reasoning about evidence, 28
of participation in the culture of scientific practices, 29–30
recommendations for presenting, 5–6, 348–349
scaffolding, 273–274
skills in, 215–216
of theory change, 28–29
Science as practice, 251–295, 298
conclusions, 285–287
current instructional practice, 253–255
elements of practice, 264–268
in social interactions, 265–266
specialized language of science, 266–267
supporting the learning of, 268–285
work with scientific representations and tools, 267–268
Science as practice in research-based instructional design, 255–264, 342
argumentation, explanation, and model building in K-8 classrooms, 258–259
designing and conducting empirical investigations in K-8 classrooms, 256–257
evidence of student learning, 260–264
interacting with texts in K-8 classrooms, 259–260
Science-as-theory perspective, 28
“Science context,” 135
Science courses for teacher candidates, recommendations for university-based, 7, 350
Science Curriculum Improvement Study, 14
Science curriculum reforms of the 1960s, legacy of, 12–15
Science education goals, 26–49
addressing inequities, 4
defining science, 26–33
development, learning, and instruction, 41–45
for elementary and middle school science, 34–36
research on, 176
science education, 34–41
supporting, 296–330
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Science Education through Portfolio Instruction and Assessment (SEPIA) project, 283
Science kits, 39, 218
sharing, 319
Science learning, 211–330
complexity of, 212
historical context of U.S. science education, 12–18
learning progressions, 213–250
past and present, 11–25
recent developments in science, learning, and teaching, 18–20, 252
teaching science as practice, 251–295
Science learning in young children
conclusion, 81–83
early conceptual understanding of natural systems, 56–74
foundations for, 53–92
organizing themes, 54–56
underpinnings of scientific reasoning, 74–78
young children’s understanding of knowledge and of science, 78–81
Science specialists, 22, 315–316
Science teachers
knowledge of science, 297–300
knowledgeable, 297–306
number of science courses taken, 297–298
subject matter knowledge for teaching, 304–306
understanding learners and learning, 301–304
Science testing, nationwide, 18
Science writing, 189
Scientific community, 13
classrooms as, 40
Scientific evidence. See Evidence
Scientific explanations of the natural world, knowing, using, and interpreting, as one strand of scientific proficiency, 37–39
Scientific knowledge
operationalizing for teaching, 306
young children’s understanding of, 80–81, 245
The “scientific method,” 27, 215
Scientific proficiency. See Strands of scientific proficiency
Scientific reasoning, 130, 223
interdependence of theory and evidence in, 144
Scientific theories, significance of, 244
Scientific visualization tools, 263
Scientific worldview, persuading students of the validity of, 187
Scientist’s notebooks, 259
Selecting Instructional Materials, 318
Self-directed experiments, 132, 137, 140
SenseMaker, 274
SEPIA. See Science Education through Portfolio Instruction and Assessment project
Sequencing units of study, 269–271
Simulations
computer, 140
interaction with, 268
“Situated cognition,” 29
Situational interest, 199–200
Skeletal principles, 106
Skills.
See also “Process skills”
in modeling, 152–159
promoting, 149
teaching as needed, 55, 255
Sleep-deprivation, 118
Social interactions, 39, 130, 335
and cognitive factors, 29
patterning in, 65
scaffolding, 274–276
science in, 265–266
Social trust, building, 309
Software tools, 172, 274
Solar system, 104
Sources of knowledge, young children’s understanding of, 79–80
Spanish-speaking students, 314–315
Spatial representations, 74
Specialists, in science, 22, 315–316
Specialized language of science, 266–267
Species, misconceptions about, 100
Standardized tests, state, 263
Standards, 5
including content in, 219
recommendations for next generation, both state and national, 5, 348
recommendations for policy and practice, 348–349
Standards-based reform, emergence of, 15–18
Stanford Education Assessment Laboratory, 279, 320
Starting Out Right, 22
State leaders in science education, recommendations for, 6, 16, 349
Statistics, creation of, 157
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Strands of scientific proficiency, 2, 23, 36–41, 285–286, 296
generating and evaluating scientific evidence and explanations, 37, 39
interconnections among, 40–41
knowing, using, and interpreting scientific explanations of the natural world, 37–39
participating productively in scientific practices and discourse, 37, 40
recommendations for teaching the four, 6, 349
understanding the nature and development of scientific knowledge, 37, 39–40
Strategies, coexistence of valid and invalid, 134
Stress, 29
Struggle for Survival unit, in the middle school curriculum, 269–270
Student learning.
See also Learners;
Learning
collective, 275
conditions that support, 297
formative assessment and, 281–284
link to science knowledge of teachers, 298
“nudging” necessary for, 287
supporting, 217
Student predictions, 262
Subject matter knowledge
optimal level of, 298
of science teachers for teaching, 304–306
as situated, not absolute, 305
Suboptimal instruction, in K-8 science classrooms, 55
Substances and their transformations, children’s early conceptual understanding of, 69–73
Success for All, 320
Supporting science instruction, 296–330
coherent instructional systems, 317–322
conclusions, 322–323
knowledgeable science teachers, 297–306
teachers’ opportunities to learn, 306–316
Supporting the learning of science as practice, 268–285
embedding instructional guidance in students’ performance of scientific tasks, 271–278
formative assessment, 279–285
sequencing units of study, 269–271
supporting articulation and reflection, 278–279
Systems for State Science Assessment, 22
T
Talk and argument, 187–189, 266
Target situations, 114
Task-performance. See Scaffolding
Teacher leaders, 315–316
Teacher learning, 306–316
effective opportunities, 306–308
opportunities that focus on diverse student groups, 314–315
in the organizational context of schooling, 308–310
professional development programs, 310–314
recent developments in, 18–20
science specialists, 315–316
Teachers.
See also Science teachers
beliefs about student learning, 301–303
major findings and conclusions concerning, 344–346
perceptions of diverse student learners, 303–304
sensitizing to capabilities of all learners, 349
“Teachers’ dispositions,” 301
Teaching innovations, timescale of, 219
Teaching science, importance of, 34
Teleological stance, 69
Textbooks, 211, 253, 257, 341
current, 244
innovative, 259
interaction with, in K-8 classrooms, 259–260
limited in the U.S., 218
Theory and hypothesis.
See also Scientific theories
in the language of science, 30–31, 271
Thinkertools, 277–278
Thought experiments, 65, 102–103
Thoughts about science, journaling, 299
Three-dimensional arrays, 236
Tracing, historical, 229
Trends across the K-8 years, 131–142
evaluating evidence, 137–142
generating evidence, 131–136
observing and recording, 136–137
Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study, 217, 263, 316
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U
Ulcers, bacterial theory of, 29, 143
Underlying model of the nature and development of scientific knowledge, 170–172
Underlying science and knowledge in the K-8 years, 172–179
knowledge construction, 173–175
the nature of science and how it is constructed, 175–179
Underpinnings of scientific reasoning, 74–78
Understanding knowledge construction, in the K-8 years, 173–175
Understanding learners and learning, 301–304
of science teachers, 301–304
teachers’ beliefs about student learning, 301–303
teachers’ perceptions of diverse student learners, 303–304
Understanding of the natural world, 93–128
changes in conceptual understanding during the K-8 years, 94–106
conclusions, 118–120
nature of conceptual change, 106–118
Understanding student ideas, professional development programs in, 312
Understanding the nature of science
and how it is constructed in the K-8 years, 175–179
one strand of scientific proficiency, 37, 39–40
Units of study
highly integrated, 257
sequencing, 269–271
University of Wisconsin, 312
U.S. pedagogy, patterns in, 254–255
V
Valid strategies, coexistence with invalid, 134, 141
Values
clustered, 157
and the desire to “do science,” 198–199
traditional, 265
Variables
causal versus noncausal, 141
intraindividual, 4, 134, 142
isolating, 132
Verbal interaction, 191.
See also Talk and argument
Visual analogies, 237
Visualization tools, scientific, 154, 263, 268, 277
Vocabulary, 303
Vocalization, patterns of, 64
W
Willingness to participate, 203
Women, underrepresented in science, 11, 303
Word learning, 70
Working-class men, underrepresented in science, 303
Working with scientific representations and tools, 267–268
World. See Natural world
WorldWatcher, 277
Written explanations, 274
Y
Young children’s understanding of knowledge and of science, 78–81
ideas, beliefs, and knowledge, 78–79
scientific knowledge, 80–81
sources of knowledge, 79–80
Yup’ik people, 191
Z
Zoos, 98
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