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BEYOND
MAPPING
MEETING NATIONAL NEEDS THROUGH
ENHANCED GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SCIENCE
Committee on Beyond Mapping:
The Challenges of New Technologies in the
Geographic Information Sciences
The Mapping Science Committee
Board on Earth Sciences and Resources
Division on Earth and Life Studies
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THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS 500 Fifth Street, N.W., Washington, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Gov-
erning Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from
the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engi-
neering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible
for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for ap-
propriate balance.
This study was supported by the National Science Foundation, Award No. BCS-
0071916, U.S. Department of Defense/National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency,
Grant No. NMA202-99-1-1018, U.S. Department of Commerce/National Oceanic
and Atmospheric Administration, Task Order No. 56-DKNA-0-95110 (Contract
No. 50-DKNA-6-90040), Department of Commerce/U.S. Bureau of the Census,
Award No. 43-YA-BC-154410, and Department of the Interior/U.S. Geological
Survey, Grant Nos. 01HQGR0198 and 03HQGR0066. Any opinions, findings, con-
clusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the
author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies
that provided support for the project.
International Standard Book Number 0-309-10226-X (Book)
International Standard Book Number 0-309-66150-1 (PDF)
Additional copies of this report are available from the National Academies Press,
500 Fifth Street, N.W., Lockbox 285, Washington, DC 20055; (800) 624-6242 or (202)
334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area); Internet, http://www.nap.edu.
Cover: The constellation of nodes seen in this image is a map of the Internet, where
individuals, computers, and society intersect. The interactions between these three
domains have propelled mapping science beyond its traditional boundaries. To-
pology map © 2005 The Regents of the University of California. All rights re-
served. Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute any part of this "IPv4 AS-
level Internet Graph" for educational, research and nonprofit purposes, without
fee, and without a written agreement, is hereby granted, provided that the above
copyright notice and this paragraph appear in all or near all copies. Composite
illustration and design by Van Nguyen, National Academies Press.
Copyright 2006 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.
www.national-academies.org
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COMMITTEE ON BEYOND MAPPING:
THE CHALLENGES OF NEW TECHNOLOGIES IN THE
GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SCIENCES
JOEL L. MORRISON, Chair, The Ohio State University, Columbus
JOHN S. ADAMS, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
SARAH W. BEDNARZ, Texas A&M University, College Station
MAX J. EGENHOFER, University of Maine, Orono
MARK N. GAHEGAN, The Pennsylvania State University, University
Park
HENRY L. GARIE (member until January 2003), New Jersey Office of
Information Technology, Trenton, N.J.
MICHAEL F. GOODCHILD, University of California, Santa Barbara
KATHLEEN O'NEILL GREEN, Space Imaging Solutions, Thornton,
Colorado (retired)
MICHAEL TAIT, Environmental Systems Research Institute, Redlands,
California
NANCY TOSTA, Ross & Associates Environmental Consulting Ltd.,
Seattle, Washington
DAVID UNWIN, Birkbeck College, University of London, U.K.
National Research Council Staff
RONALD F. ABLER, Senior Scientist
ANTHONY R. DE SOUZA, Director, Board on Earth Sciences and
Resources
PAUL M. CUTLER, Study Director (until January 2005)
KRISTEN CAMPBELL, Study Director (April 2002October 2004)
CAETLIN M. OFIESH, Research Associate
AMANDA M. ROBERTS, Senior Program Assistant
JARED P. ENO, Program Assistant
v
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MAPPING SCIENCE COMMITTEE
KEITH C. CLARKE, Chair, University of California, Santa Barbara
ISABEL F. CRUZ, University of Illinois, Chicago
ROBERT P. DENARO, NAVTEQ Corporation, Chicago, Illinois
SHOREH ELHAMI, Delaware County Auditor's Office, Ohio
DAVID R. FLETCHER, GPC Inc., Running Springs, New Mexico
JIM GERINGER, ESRI, Wheatland, Wyoming
JOHN R. JENSEN, University of South Carolina, Columbia
MARY L. LARSGAARD, University of California, Santa Barbara
NINA S. N. LAM, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge
DAVID R. MAIDMENT, The University of Texas, Austin
ROBERT B. MCMASTER, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
SHASHI SHEKHAR, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
NANCY TOSTA, Ross & Associates Environmental Consulting Ltd.,
Seattle, Washington
National Research Council Staff
ANN G. FRAZIER, Program Officer
AMANDA M. ROBERTS, Senior Program Assistant
vi
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BOARD ON EARTH SCIENCES AND RESOURCES
GEORGE M. HORNBERGER, Chair, University of Virginia,
Charlottesville
M. LEE ALLISON, Arizona Geological Survey, Tucson
STEVEN R. BOHLEN, Joint Oceanographic Institutions, Washington,
D.C.
DAVID J. COWEN, University of South Carolina, Columbia
KATHERINE H. FREEMAN, The Pennsylvania State University,
University Park
RHEA L. GRAHAM, Pueblo of Sandia, Bernalillo, New Mexico
ROBYN HANNIGAN, Arkansas State University, State University
V. RAMA MURTHY, University of New Mexico, Albuquerque
RAYMOND A. PRICE, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario
BARBARA A. ROMANOWICZ, University of California, Berkeley
JOAQUIN RUIZ, University of Arizona, Tucson
MARK SCHAEFER, Global Environment and Technology Foundation,
Arlington, Virginia
RUSSELL E. STANDS-OVER-BULL, American Resources, Pryor,
Montana
BILLIE L. TURNER II, Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts
STEPHEN G. WELLS, Desert Research Institute, Reno, Nevada
THOMAS J. WILBANKS, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge,
Tennessee
National Research Council Staff
ANTHONY R. DE SOUZA, Director
ELIZABETH EIDE, Senior Program Officer
DAVID A. FEARY, Senior Program Officer
ANNE M. LINN, Senior Program Officer
ANN G. FRAZIER, Program Officer
SAMMANTHA L. MAGSINO, Program Officer
RONALD F. ABLER, Senior Scientist
VERNA J. BOWEN, Administrative and Financial Associate
JENNIFER T. ESTEP, Financial Associate
KRISTEN B. DALY, Research Associate
CAETLIN M. OFIESH, Research Associate
AMANDA M. ROBERTS, Senior Program Assistant
JARED P. ENO, Program Assistant
NICK ROGERS, Program Assistant
vii
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Acknowledgments
T his report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen
for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance
with procedures approved by the National Research Council's Re-
port Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to
provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in
making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the
report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and respon-
siveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript
remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We
wish to thank the following individuals for their review of this report:
Barbara P. Buttenfield, University of Colorado, Boulder
William J. Craig, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis
John R. Jensen, University of South Carolina, Columbia
Xavier R. Lopez, Oracle Corporation, Nashua, New Hampshire
Judy M. Olson, Michigan State University, East Lansing
James R. Plasker, American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote
Sensing, Bethesda, Maryland
Joseph Wood, University of Southern Maine, Gorham
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many construc-
tive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the con-
clusions or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report
before its release. The review of this report was overseen by Marc
ix
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x ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Armstrong, University of Iowa, Iowa City. Appointed by the National
Research Council, he was responsible for making certain that an indepen-
dent examination of the report was carried out in accordance with institu-
tional procedures and that all review comments were carefully consid-
ered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with
the authoring committee and the institution.
We would like to thank David DiBiase for his white paper, "The U.S.
Geospatial Education Infrastructure: Specifying, Developing, and Assur-
ing Competence in the Geospatial Technology Workforce," which was
submitted to the committee on June 5, 2005.
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Preface
C an you imagine formulating new methods and a coordinated
training program for fighting forest fires while battling a raging
forest fire? I can think of no better analogy to introduce this re-
port. The mapping technologies that underlie this study are constantly
and rapidly changing, and it is impossible for one person to keep abreast
of all changes that are taking place. The playing field today is radically
different from the playing field when this study was proposed in 2000.
That the sponsoring agencies1 requested such a study is not surprising, as
each is, in its own way, in the middle of a forest fire in its own govern-
ment department. They are to be commended for the wisdom to rise far
enough above the conflagrations to realize that they needed advice and
new directions.
Pulling together a group of dedicated individuals to attempt to an-
swer the questions posed by the agencies was easy because of the current
critical interest in the subject matter. But bringing together busy people,
with their understanding of the part of the problem with which they were
familiar, and asking for concurrence in a relatively short period of time
and with few meetings, was about as easy as containing a forest fire when
the wind constantly shifts directions and freshens and subsides at irregu-
lar intervals. The subcommittee held three meetings and a workshop
1The Census Bureau, the Federal Geographic Data Committee, the National Geospatial-
Intelligence Agency (formerly the National Imagery and Mapping Agency), the National
Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, the National Science Foundation, and the U.S.
Geological Survey.
xi
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xii PREFACE
within a relatively short period of time yet was vividly aware that the
nature of the field had changed rapidly between meetings, just as a forest
fire is likely to change from hour to hour depending upon weather and
human intervention.
Clearly North American industry and government took the lead
in the rapid introduction of electronic technology into geographic infor-
mation science. North American firms outstripped all competition in
bringing useful software and world-leading hardware to the market. Gov-
ernment agencies saw these events unfolding and knew that the develop-
ments could help them perform their missions, but were unable to move
as quickly as private industry. Government agencies at all levels (federal,
state, and local) saw their roles transformed from serving as collectors
and custodians of geographic information to becoming major users of geo-
graphic information, a not inconsequential change in a period as short as
10 years in some agencies. Academia was the slowest sector to respond,
and the resulting lack of adequately trained people to meet industry and
government needs has quickly mushroomed. The existing GIS/GIScience
workforce, even given the increasingly powerful hardware and software
it employs, cannot meet increased demands for geographic information.
In this report we try to summarize these changes during the past 30
years and to offer recommendations to quench some of the remaining
hot spots in our forest fire. Although this report looks primarily
to academia for long-term solutions, the challenge cannot be met by
academia alone. New and innovative partnerships among industry, gov-
ernment, nonprofits, and academia will be required for success.
Thanks go to a group of dedicated individuals at the National Acad-
emies for preparing this report. I thank all of the original subcommittee
members for their input at the meetings, which were both exciting and
intellectually challenging, and for their written output after the meetings.
Each member directed energies at one or more of the hot spots uncovered
in the Beyond Mapping fire. Paul Cutler with the help of Kristen Campbell
shepherded the subcommittee under the tutelage of Anthony de Souza.
Left with many disjointed pages of rough draft from the subcommittee
members, Ronald Abler, with input from Paul Cutler and Anthony de
Souza, stepped forward to create a meaningful, yet still smoldering manu-
script. After further review and helpful input from David Cowen and
Caetie Ofiesh, Ron Abler was able to finally establish control over our
forest fire. His efforts and those of the others mentioned above are greatly
appreciated.
Joel L. Morrison
Chair
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Contents
SUMMARY 1
1 GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SCIENCE TODAY
AND TOMORROW 7
National Needs for GIS/GIScience Professionals, 11
Forces Driving the Need for GIS/GIScience Professionals, 12
2 EDUCATION AND CURRICULUM NEEDS IN
GIS/GISCIENCE 27
GIS/GIScience Training and Education Needs, 27
New Curricular Challenges and Responses, 30
Assuring Quality in Education and Training, 38
Organizational Challenges, 39
3 GIS/GISCIENCE RESEARCH NEEDS 43
Practical and Theoretical Challenges, 43
GIS/GIScience and Society, 46
Research Infrastructure, 47
Executing Research Agendas, 49
4 RECOMMENDATIONS 55
5 AFTERWORD 59
REFERENCES 63
xiii
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xiv CONTENTS
APPENDIXES
A Biographical Sketches of Committee Members and Staff 69
B Workshop Agenda and Participants 77
C Evolution of the Mapping Sciences 81
D Acronyms 99
LIST OF SIDEBARS
S-1 Statement of Task, 2
S-2 The University Consortium for Geographic Information Science
(UCGIS), 4
S-3 The Open Geospatial Consortium, 5
1-1 GIS and GIScience Definitions, 10
1-2 Geospatial One-Stop, 14
1-3 The Federal Geographic Data Committee, 22
1-4 Job Posting for a GIS-related Position, 23
1-5 University of Texas at Dallas Doctoral Program in GeoSpatial
Information Technology, 25
2-1 Seven Levels of GIS Competence, 28
2-2 UCGIS Body of Knowledge Unit CF4: Elements of Geographic
Information, 36
3-1 UCGIS Research Agenda, 51
3-2 NGA GIS/GIScience Research Priorities, 52
C-1 The Geospatial Enterprise Community of Practice, 91
LIST OF FIGURES
1-1 A Web-based GIS tool able to display property tax assessments, 16
1-2 A Web-based GIS tool showing residences of sex offenders, 17
1-3 A Web-based GIS tool able to perform real estate searches, 18
2-1 The three subdomains comprising the geographic information
science and technology (GI S&T) domain, in relation to allied
fields, 40
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CONTENTS xv
LIST OF TABLES
1-1 Projected Growth in Geospatial-related Occupations by U.S.
Department of Labor 2000-2010, 12
2-1 Twelve Roles Played by Geospatial Technology Professionals as
Identified by the Geospatial Workforce Development Center, 32
2-2 Thirty-nine Competences Required for Success in Geospatial
Technology Professions as Identified by GWDC, 33
2-3 Knowledge Areas and Units from the UCGIS GI S&T Body of
Knowledge 2006, 34
3-1 Proposed GIS/GIScience Research Agendas, 1988-2005, 50
C-1 Timeline of Selected Events in the History of the Mapping
Sciences in the U.S., 94
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