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Human Biomonitoring for Environmental Chemicals
HUMAN BIOMONITORING FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICALS
Committee on Human Biomonitoring for Environmental Toxicants
Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology
Division on Earth and Life Studies
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
Washington, DC
www.nap.edu
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Human Biomonitoring for Environmental Chemicals
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
500 Fifth Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This project was supported by Contract No. 68-C-03-081 between the National Academy of Sciences and the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency with the cosponsorship of the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies that provided support for this project.
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-10272-3 (Book)
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-10272-8 (Book)
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-66315-6 (PDF)
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-66315-1 (PDF)
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Additional copies of this report are available from
The National Academies Press
500 Fifth Street, NW Box 285 Washington, DC 20055 800-624-6242 202-334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area) http://www.nap.edu
Copyright 2006 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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Human Biomonitoring for Environmental Chemicals
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
Advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering, and Medicine
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Wm. A. Wulf is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Wm. A. Wulf are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.
www.national-academies.org
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Human Biomonitoring for Environmental Chemicals
COMMITTEE ON HUMAN BIOMONITORING FOR ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICANTS
Members
THOMAS BURKE (Chair),
Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD
MARK CULLEN,
Yale Occupational and Environmental Medicine Program, New Haven, CT
GEORGE EADON,
New York State Department of Health, Albany, NY
PETER B. FARMER,
University of Leicester, Leicester, United Kingdom
GARY GINSBERG,
Connecticut Department of Public health, Hartford, CT
CAROL J. HENRY,
American Chemistry Council, Arlington, VA
NINA T. HOLLAND,
University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA
GUNNAR JOHANSON,
Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
BRANDEN B. JOHNSON,
New Jersey Department of Environmental Protection, Trenton, NJ
DOROTHY E. PATTON,
International Life Sciences Institute, Washington, DC
GERALD VAN BELLE,
University of Washington, Seattle, WA
CLAUDE VIAU,
University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec
ROBIN WHYATT,
Columbia University, New York, NY
RAYMOND S.H. YANG,
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO
Staff
EILEEN N. ABT, Project Director
JENNIFER SAUNDERS, Associate Program Officer
NORMAN GROSSBLATT, Senior Editor
RUTH CROSSGROVE, Senior Editor
MIRSADA KARALIC-LONCAREVIC, Research Associate
LUCY FUSCO, Program Associate
MORGAN MOTTO, Senior Project Assistant
RADIAH A. ROSE, Senior Project Assistant
TAMARA DAWSON, Senior Project Assistant
KEMI YAI, Project Assistant
SAMMY BARDLEY, Librarian
Sponsors
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
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Human Biomonitoring for Environmental Chemicals
BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY1
Members
JONATHAN M. SAMET (Chair),
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
RAMÓN ALVAREZ,
Environmental Defense, Austin, TX
JOHN M. BALBUS,
Environmental Defense, Washington, DC
THOMAS BURKE,
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD
DALLAS BURTRAW,
Resources for the Future, Washington, DC
JAMES S. BUS,
Dow Chemical Company, Midland, MI
COSTEL D. DENSON,
University of Delaware, Newark
E. DONALD ELLIOTT,
Willkie Farr & Gallagher LLP, Washington, DC
J. PAUL GILMAN,
Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN
SHERRI W. GOODMAN,
Center for Naval Analyses, Alexandria, VA
JUDITH A. GRAHAM,
American Chemistry Council, Arlington, VA
DANIEL S. GREENBAUM,
Health Effects Institute, Cambridge, MA
WILLIAM P. HORN,
Birch, Horton, Bittner and Cherot, Washington, DC
ROBERT HUGGETT,
Michigan State University (emeritus), East Lansing
JAMES H. JOHNSON JR.,
Howard University, Washington, DC
JUDITH L. MEYER,
University of Georgia, Athens
PATRICK Y. O’BRIEN,
ChevronTexaco Energy Technology Company, Richmond, CA
DOROTHY E. PATTON,
International Life Sciences Institute, Washington, DC
STEWARD T.A. PICKETT,
Institute of Ecosystem Studies, Millbrook, NY
DANNY D. REIBLE,
University of Texas, Austin
JOSEPH V. RODRICKS,
ENVIRON International Corporation, Arlington, VA
ARMISTEAD G. RUSSELL,
Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta
ROBERT F. SAWYER,
University of California, Berkeley
LISA SPEER,
Natural Resources Defense Council, New York, NY
KIMBERLY M. THOMPSON,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
MONICA G. TURNER,
University of Wisconsin, Madison
MARK J. UTELL,
University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY
CHRIS G. WHIPPLE,
ENVIRON International Corporation, Emeryville, CA
LAUREN ZEISE,
California Environmental Protection Agency, Oakland
Senior Staff
JAMES J. REISA, Director
DAVID J. POLICANSKY, Scholar
RAYMOND A. WASSEL, Senior Program Officer for Environmental Sciences and Engineering
1
This study was planned, overseen, and supported by the Board on Environmental Studies and Toxicology.
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Human Biomonitoring for Environmental Chemicals
KULBIR BAKSHI, Senior Program Officer for Toxicology
EILEEN N. ABT, Senior Program Officer for Risk Analysis
KARL E. GUSTAVSON, Senior Program Officer
K. JOHN HOLMES, Senior Program Officer
ELLEN K. MANTUS, Senior Program Officer
SUSAN N.J. MARTEL, Senior Program Officer
SUZANNE VAN DRUNICK, Senior Program Officer
RUTH E. CROSSGROVE, Senior Editor
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Human Biomonitoring for Environmental Chemicals
OTHER REPORTS OF THE BOARD ON ENVIRONMENTAL STUDIES AND TOXICOLOGY
Assessing the Human Health Risks of Trichloroethylene: Key Scientific Issues (2006)
New Source Review for Stationary Sources of Air Pollution (2006)
Health Risks from Dioxin and Related Compounds: Evaluation of the EPA Reassessment (2006)
Fluoride in Drinking Water: A Scientific Review of EPA’s Standards (2006)
State and Federal Standards for Mobile-Source Emissions (2006)
Superfund and Mining Megasites—Lessons from the Coeur d’Alene River Basin (2005)
Health Implications of Perchlorate Ingestion (2005)
Air Quality Management in the United States (2004)
Endangered and Threatened Species of the Platte River (2004)
Atlantic Salmon in Maine (2004)
Endangered and Threatened Fishes in the Klamath River Basin (2004)
Cumulative Environmental Effects of Alaska North Slope Oil and Gas Development (2003)
Estimating the Public Health Benefits of Proposed Air Pollution Regulations (2002)
Biosolids Applied to Land: Advancing Standards and Practices (2002)
The Airliner Cabin Environment and Health of Passengers and Crew (2002)
Arsenic in Drinking Water: 2001 Update (2001)
Evaluating Vehicle Emissions Inspection and Maintenance Programs (2001)
Compensating for Wetland Losses Under the Clean Water Act (2001)
A Risk-Management Strategy for PCB-Contaminated Sediments (2001)
Acute Exposure Guideline Levels for Selected Airborne Chemicals (4 volumes, 2000-2004)
Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury (2000)
Strengthening Science at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (2000)
Scientific Frontiers in Developmental Toxicology and Risk Assessment (2000)
Ecological Indicators for the Nation (2000)
Waste Incineration and Public Health (1999)
Hormonally Active Agents in the Environment (1999)
Research Priorities for Airborne Particulate Matter (4 volumes, 1998-2004)
The National Research Council’s Committee on Toxicology: The First 50 Years (1997)
Carcinogens and Anticarcinogens in the Human Diet (1996)
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Human Biomonitoring for Environmental Chemicals
Upstream: Salmon and Society in the Pacific Northwest (1996)
Science and the Endangered Species Act (1995)
Wetlands: Characteristics and Boundaries (1995)
Biologic Markers (5 volumes, 1989-1995)
Review of EPA’s Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Program (3 volumes, 1994-1995)
Science and Judgment in Risk Assessment (1994)
Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children (1993)
Dolphins and the Tuna Industry (1992)
Science and the National Parks (1992)
Human Exposure Assessment for Airborne Pollutants (1991)
Rethinking the Ozone Problem in Urban and Regional Air Pollution (1991)
Decline of the Sea Turtles (1990)
Copies of these reports may be ordered from the National Academies Press
(800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313
www.nap.edu
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Preface
Biomonitoring has various applications; the focus in this report is on the role of biomonitoring as an exposure-assessment tool, which is central to public-health efforts. Repeatedly throughout recent history, biomonitoring data have helped to confirm health effects of environmental exposures and have validated public-health policies. Population-based biomonitoring studies have identified new chemicals found in the environment and in human tissues, monitored changes in exposures, and established the distribution of exposures among the general population. Biomonitoring data— when used in conjunction with available epidemiology, toxicology, and pharmacokinetic modeling data—can estimate how much of a chemical has been absorbed into the body and provide a measure of potential health risk. The ultimate objective of biomonitoring is to link information on exposures, susceptibility, and effects to understand the public health implications of exposure to environmental chemicals.
In spite of its potential, tremendous challenges surround the use of biomonitoring, and our ability to generate biomonitoring data has exceeded our ability to interpret what the data mean to public health. The challenges include improving the design of biomonitoring studies, interpreting what biomonitoring data mean, and understanding ethical and communication issues that are essential to the continued advancement of this field. To address the challenges, Congress asked the National Academies to assess key uncertainties related to the use and interpretation of biomonitoring data.
In this report, the Committee on Human Biomonitoring for Environmental Toxicants reviews current practices and makes recommendations for
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Contents
SUMMARY
1
1
INTRODUCTION
15
Background,
16
Current Biomonitoring Activities,
17
Challenges,
17
Biomarkers and Biomonitoring,
21
The National Research Council Committee,
23
Organization of the Report,
24
References,
24
2
U.S. AND INTERNATIONAL BIOMONITORING EFFORTS
27
Human Biomonitoring in the United States,
28
International Biomonitoring Efforts,
58
Human-Specimen Banking,
60
General Observations,
62
Conclusions,
64
Recommendations,
64
References,
64
3
FRAMEWORK TO CHARACTERIZE BIOMARKERS AND USES OF BIOMONITORING
71
Rationale for a Framework to Characterize Biomarkers,
71
Types of Biomarkers,
72
Key Uses of Biomonitoring Data,
73
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Properties of and Grouping Framework for Biomarkers of Exposure,
75
Conclusions,
82
Recommendations,
82
References,
82
4
CONSIDERATIONS IN THE DESIGN OF BIOMONITORING STUDIES
84
Study Design,
86
Study Conduct,
110
Statistical Analysis,
121
Summary and Conclusions,
124
Recommendations,
125
References,
127
5
INTERPRETATION OF BIOMONITORING RESULTS
132
Introduction,
132
Initial Review of Biomonitoring Data,
133
Overview of Interpretive Options for Biomonitoring Data,
134
Reference Ranges,
139
Adapting Workplace Biologic Reference Values for Interpreting Biomonitoring Results,
151
Using Biomonitoring Results to Estimate Risk,
158
Biomonitoring-Based Risk Assessment,
159
Using Existing Risk Assessments for Interpreting Biomonitoring Data,
163
Biomonitoring-Led Risk-Assessment Approaches,
164
Summary,
185
Conclusions,
190
Recommendations,
192
References,
193
6
COMMUNICATING RESULTS, INTERPRETATIONS, AND USES OF BIOMONITORING DATA TO NONSCIENTISTS
201
Limits of This Chapter’s Discussion,
202
Principles of Risk Communication,
205
Trading Off Avoidance of False Positives and False Negatives in Communication,
211
Discussing Results Below the Limit of Detection for Biomarkers,
213
Communicating Health Interpretations of Detected Biomarkers,
214
Recommendations,
227
References,
233
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7
RESEARCH AGENDA
238
Introduction,
238
Research Recommendations,
239
Infrastructure Needs to Implement Research Agenda,
247
Summary,
251
References,
253
APPENDIXES
A
Biographic Information on the Committee on Human Biomonitoring for Environmental Toxicants
257
B
Additional Case Studies Used to Exemplify Interpretative Approaches Described in Chapter 5
263
C
PBPK Modeling
278
GLOSSARY
287
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Boxes, Figures, and Tables
BOXES
3-1
Continuum of Risk-Assessment and -Management Activities Related to Exposure Biomonitoring,
74
5-1
Case Example: Organophosphorus Metabolites in Pregnant Farm Workers,
145
5-2
Reference Ranges Encourage Public-Health Action,
150
5-3
Potential Utility of Pilot Data from “Other” Populations,
150
5-4
Brief Overview of Pharmacokinetic Models,
165
FIGURES
1-1
Simplified flow chart of classes of biomarkers,
22
2-1
Timeline of major U.S. biomonitoring efforts,
29
3-1
Operational relationships between internal dose, external dose, and biologic effects,
76
4-1
Stages of a biomonitoring study,
86
4-2
Contribution of exposures to biomarker concentrations and effect of limit of detection on its potential uses,
88
4-3
Effect of half-life on contributions of exposures during the last presampling hour, day, week, month, and half-year to biologic levels of determinants,
92
4-4
Influence of biologic half-life relationship between exposure level and biomarker level,
93
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4-5
Pharmacokinetics of environmental chemicals in body and what matrices are available for analyses,
111
5-1
Overview of interpretive options for biomonitoring data,
133
5-2
Illustration of the interpretive risk-based options,
136
5-3
Distribution of biomarker concentrations in generic reference population,
143
5-4
Cumulative frequency distribution of the urinary excretion of 1-hydroxypyrene in people living in two rural districts of Burundi, in Bujumbura and in a reference group at the University of Montreal,
146
5-5
Daily average workplace xylene air and urinary methylhippuric acid in exposed workers,
155
5-6
Evolution of risk assessment and risk management,
160
5-7
Conversion of biomonitoring data to daily dose on the basis of one- compartment (body-burden) model,
166
5-8
Blood concentrations of rapidly cleared chemical to which there is frequent and nearly uniform exposure,
167
5-9
Conversion of biomonitoring data to daily dose on basis of one-compartment model for non-lipid-soluble chemicals at steady state,
168
5-10
Predictiveness of PFOA rat model,
177
5-11
Median concentrations of BDE-47, BDE-99, and BDE-153 in human milk from different countries,
184
TABLES
1-1
Numbers of Chemicals in Third National Report on Human Exposures to Environmental Chemicals for Which Health-Based Values Are Available,
20
1-2
Challenges to Interpreting and Using Biomonitoring Data,
21
2-1
Examples of Current U.S. and International Biomonitoring Efforts,
32
3-1
Framework for Grouping Biomarkers of Exposure,
77
4-1
Goal-Based and Process-Based Criteria for Evaluating Communication,
108
4-2
Matrices for Biomonitoring Studies,
112
5-1
Overview of Major Biomarker Case Examples Used to Illustrate Interpretive Options,
138
5-2
Blood Concentrations for Cadmium in the U.S. Population Aged 1 Year and Older,
140
5-3
Urine Concentrations for Cadmium in the U.S. Population Aged 6 Years and Older,
142
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5-4
Comparison of Biomarker Reference Values Proposed by ACGIH and Observed Concentrations in Adults for Same Determinants from NHANES 1999-2002,
152
5-5
Estimated Exposures (µg/kg/day) to the General Population Based on Extrapolated Intake from Urinary Metabolites in 289 Individuals Measured by Blount et al. (2000),
170
5-6
Properties of Biomarkers Used as Examples in Chapter 5,
188
7-1
Summary of Major Points in Research Agenda,
252
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HUMAN BIOMONITORING FOR ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMICALS
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