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Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2007. Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11741.
×

Index

A

Academic careers. See Career building

Academic institutions. See College attendance;

Universities

Academic medicine, 82−84

culture of, 83

Academic milestones, 228

Academic Workforce Survey, 89−90

Acceptance, 185

Access to resources, 122

Accountability

and evaluation, 150, 155−159

methods for changing institutional processes to combat bias, 229−232

Action blueprint, 219−241

changing institutional processes to combat bias, 219−225

Adelman, Cliff, 55

ADVANCE program, 144−145, 155, 196−197, 211

Advising, 221

Age of Discrimination Act of 1975, 191

Agenda for Excellence: Creating Flexibility in Tenure-Track Faculty Careers, 201, 209

Alfred P. Sloan Awards, for faculty career flexibility, 198

Allport, Gordon, 260

Ambiguous and ambivalent prejudice, 264

American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 124

American Association of University Women (AAUW), 191, 207−208

American Chemical Society, Directory of Graduate Research, 89−90, 104

American Council on Education (ACE), 9, 163, 198−199, 201, 209, 233

American Institute of Physics, Academic Workforce Survey, 89−90

American Philosophical Society, 124

American Physical Society (APS), 177, 202, 212

American Psychological Association (APA), 205−206

American Society for Cell Biology (ASCB), 126−127, 203

Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), 194

Anti-discrimination laws

discrimination types banned under, 195

federal agencies enforcing, 11, 164−165

primer on, 192−194

Antiracists, 263

Applicant pool, 195

in physical sciences, mathematics, and engineering, and faculty positions, 88

Aronson, Josh, 46

Assimilation, of outsiders, 186

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2007. Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11741.
×

Association for Women in Science (AWIS), 202

Association of American Medical Colleges (AAMC), Faculty Roster, 79, 89−90

Association of American Universities, 9, 163, 233

Attainment, vs. intention, 63

Attrition. See Faculty attrition

Automatic discrimination, 262−265

Avoidance, as intentional discrimination, 261, 263

Awards, 52

B

Bachelors degrees. See Science and engineering undergraduate degree programs

Backlash, 184, 188

Barriers to success in science and engineering, identifying, 200−205

Berg, Jeremy, 131

Bias avoidance behaviors, 179

Biases.

See also Subtle bias and discrimination

against caregivers, and family obligations, 174−175

effects on evaluation, top research articles on, 158

evidence establishing that most men and women hold implicit, findings concerning, 3

moving beyond, 159

specific steps for overcoming, 158, 242

against women, 114, 215

Biological, Social, and Organizational Components of Success for Women in Academic Science and Engineering, xiii, 19, 22

Biology, 37−42

brain structure and function, 37−38

evolutionary psychology, 41−42

hormonal influences on cognitive performance, 38−39

and learning and performance, 37−42

psychological development in infancy, 39−41

Blinded peer review, 146−147

Blueprint for action, 219−241

changing institutional processes to combat bias, 219−225

Boring, EG, 42

Brain structure and function, 25, 37−38

Building Engineering and Science Talent (BEST) Initiative, 20−21, 57

Talent Imperative: Diversifying America’s Science and Engineering Workforce, 21

Bullying behavior, 181, 242

C

Call to action, 12, 241−243

Career building, 117−125

models of, 160

productivity, 117−120

progress in, 113

recognition, 123−125

sex differences in publication productivity, 121−123

success and its evaluation in science and engineering, 117−125

Career flexibility, Alfred P. Sloan Awards for faculty, 198

Career Lunch Table program, 203

Caregivers, family obligations and the bias against, 161, 164−165, 174−175

Carnegie Mellon University, Women in Computer Science Program, 68

Ceilings. See Glass ceiling;

“Polycarbonate ceiling”

Census Bureau, current nomenclature of ethnicity, 15n

Center for Research on Learning and Teaching (CRLT) Theater Program, 226

NSF ADVANCE program at the University of Michigan, 144−145

Chait, Richard, 18

Changes needed, xiv, 217−218

building, 196−205

to combat bias in institutional processes, 219−241

coordinating body, 232−237

creating methods for evaluation and accountability, 229−232

creating new institutional structures, 225−229

economic reasons, 218

ethical reasons, 218

federal standards and compliance issues, 238−240

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2007. Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11741.
×

global competitiveness, 217−218

identifying barriers to success in science and engineering, 200−205

institutional constraints bringing, 196−205

legal reasons, 218

possible unintended consequences, 239−241

and sanctions, 239

scorecard for continuous evaluation, 238

small-win experiments, 197−200

systemic, 155

Chemistry departments, academic, building strong, through gender equity, 226−227

Chemistry faculty

case study, 104−109

chemistry doctorates who obtain positions at Research I institutions, 108

comparison of the number of men and women at RI institutions, 107

by country of doctorate, 106

by sex and rank, 107

Chemistry research, major federal funders of, 224, 226−227

Child-care

costs of covered by grants or reimbursements from scientific and professional societies to members, 231

on-site, from scientific and professional societies, at a supplemental rate using a high-quality provider, 231

Child Care Grant Subsidy (CCGS), 230

Childbirth policy, for female graduate students, 72, 228−229

Childcare Voucher Program, 230

Children, socialization of, 43−44

Civil Rights Act of 1964, 192, 238

pressures associated with, 81

Clare Boothe Luce (CBL) program, 211−212

Climate Workshops for Department Chairs, 224−225

Cognition, 28−37

hormonal influences on performance, 38−39

and learning and performance, 28−37

longitudinal manifestation of differences in, 36−37

mathematical and spatial performance, 29−32

verbal and written performance, 32−36

Cohen, Jacob, 27

Cohort analysis, 93

College attendance

examining persistence and attrition, 61−66

graduate school persistence and attrition, 66−76

and majors, 61−66

social factors influencing undergraduate attrition, 63−66

undergraduate persistence to degree, 61−63

Collegiality, 153

Columbia University, xi, 97, 208

Commission on the Status of Women, 204

Commitment, sustaining, 220

Committee on Maximizing the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering, xii, 1, 19

Committee on Science, Engineering, and Public Policy, xii, 1

Committee on the Advancement of Women Chemists (COACh), 125, 132, 180, 197, 226−227

Committee on Women in Science and Engineering (CWSE), 19

Gender Differences in the Careers of Science, Engineering, and Mathematics Faculty, 19, 22

To Recruit and Advance Women Students and Faculty in US Science and Engineering, 19

Competence, 143, 153

presumed, benefits of, 216

Competitiveness, consequences of failure to act as detrimental to the nation’s, findings concerning, 4, 241

Compliance, 164−165, 240

Composite information, funding agencies and foundations collecting, storing, and publishing, 10, 116

Conclusions, 4−6

on institutional constraints, 212−213

on learning and performance, 49

on persistence and attrition, 109−112

on success and its evaluation in science and engineering, 159

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2007. Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11741.
×

Conflicts between personal and professional life, 84

and faculty retention, 97

Congenital adrenal hyperplasia, 38

Congress, recommendations to, 12, 165

Congressional Commission on the Advancement of Women and Minorities in Science, Engineering, and Technology (CAWMSET) Project, building science and engineering talent with, 15, 20−21

Congruence, 135.

See also Role congruity theory

Conspiracy of silence, about minority-group women faculty, breaking, 210−211

Constitutional claim, of equal protection, 193

Continuous evaluation scorecard, in changing institutional processes to combat bias, 238

Contracts, for leadership positions, 129

Controversies, 23

the evolution of motivation, 42

models of faculty representation, 56−58

Convergence, 187

Coordinating body, in changing institutional processes to combat bias, 232−237

Cornell University, Child Care Grant Subsidy, 230

Course selection, in high school, and persistence and attrition, 59−61

Cover up. See Conspiracy of silence

Creativity, increasing, 153

“Critical mass,” 187

CRLT Players, 144

Cross-institutional strategy, 224, 226−227, 242

Culture.

See also Society and culture of academic medicine, 83

auditing, 156

within departments, 225

Cumulative disadvantage, 272−273

across generations and through history, 272

over time through the course of an individual’s life across different domains, 272−273

over time through the course of an individual’s life sequentially within any one domain, 273

Curricula vitae, 145−146

D

Dartmouth University, 208, 229

childbirth policy for female graduate students, 72

David and Lucille Packard Foundation, Packard Fellowship for Science and Engineering, 231

Deans, recommendations for, 8, 52, 115−116, 257

Decision making, 266

departmental, 206

Decreasing isolation, in the Johns Hopkins Department of Medicine Task Force study, 222

Defining issues. See Dynamic definitions of discrimination;

Issues defined

Degrees. See Science and engineering doctorate recipients;

Science and engineering undergraduate degree programs

Deloitte and Touche Leadership in Industry Case Study, 200, 202, 207

Department chairs, recommendations for, 8, 52, 115−116, 257

Department of Agriculture, 12, 165

Department of Defense, 12, 165, 192, 239

Department of Education, 12, 32, 164−165, 192, 239

Office of Civil Rights, 239

Department of Energy (DOE), 12, 132, 165, 224, 226

national laboratories leadership positions, 129

Department of Justice, 11, 164, 238n, 239

Department of Labor, 11−12, 164−165, 193

Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs, 238n

Departmental decision making, 206

Departments

academic, building strong, through gender equity, 226−227

climate within, and faculty retention, 97−98, 105

vs. centers, 99

Dependent care expenses, funding agencies and foundations enabling use of grant monies for, 10

Dependent Care Fund for Conference Travel, 230

Differences in salaries between groups, and faculty retention, 95−96

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2007. Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11741.
×

Directory of Graduate Research (DGR), 89−90

Disciplinary endogamy, 177

Discrimination

federal agencies evaluating whether universities have engaged in any types of, 11

within five domains, map of potential points of, 271

understanding, 150−151

Discrimination cumulating over time through the course of an individual’s life

across different domains, 272−273

sequentially within any one domain, 273

Discrimination law, 267

Discrimination types, 260−269

intentional, explicit discrimination, 260−262

organizational processes, 267−269

statistical discrimination and profiling, 265−267

subtle, unconscious, automatic discrimination, 262−265

Discrimination types banned under anti-discrimination laws, 195

disparate impact discrimination, 195

failure to maintain required policies and procedures, 195

intentional discrimination, 195

retaliation, 195

sexual harassment, 195

Disparities

disparate impact discrimination banned, 195

root causes of, 214−217

Diversity

capturing workforce talent, 154, 166

the case for, 153−155

within departments, 105

faculty development and, 221

federal agencies encouraging and providing technical assistance on achieving, 11−12

making it work, 156−157

among women, 18−19

Division of Genetics and Developmental Biology, 131

Doctorate degrees. See Science and engineering doctorate recipients

Domains

map of potential points of discrimination within five, 271

in which discrimination operates, 270−272

Dual-career marriages, 170

Duke University, 94

Women’s Initiative, 203−204

Dynamic definitions of discrimination

effects of discrimination as cumulating across different domains, 272−273

effects of discrimination as cumulating across generations and through history, 272

effects of discrimination as cumulating sequentially within any one domain, 273

moving to, from episodic, 272−273

E

Economics

impact of faculty attrition, 100−104

and the necessity of change, 218

Education, 44−45

documenting, 266

in the Johns Hopkins Department of Medicine Task Force study, 222

Effect size, 27

“Elephants in the room,” 242

Employers for Work-Life Balance, 207

Engineering. See Science and engineering

Episodic definitions of discrimination, moving to dynamic, 272−273

Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC), 11−12, 164−165, 192, 194−195, 238n

Equal Pay Act of 1963, 190, 193

Equal protection, a constitutional claim, 193

Ethics, and the necessity of change, 218

Evaluation.

See also Monitoring and evaluation

criteria for often containing arbitrary and subjective components that disadvantage women, findings concerning, 3−4

of leaders, 129−135

Evaluation of success in science and engineering, 135−159

accountability and, 155−159

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2007. Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11741.
×

the case for diversity, 153−155

gender bias in, 143−150

subtle, implicit, or unexamined bias, 151−153

understanding discrimination, 150−151

Evolution of motivation, controversy over, 42

Evolutionary psychology, 41−42

Exclusion, as intentional discrimination, 261

Executive Order 11246, 190, 193, 195, 238

Experimental psychology, 42

Experiments and strategies, 23

breaking through the “polycarbonate ceiling,” 132

building strong academic chemistry departments through gender equity, 226−227

Carnegie Mellon’s Women in Computer Science Program, 68

Center for Research on Learning and Teaching Theater Program, 144−145

climate workshops for department chairs, 224−225

Committee on the Advancement of Women Chemists, 132

Deloitte and Touche Leadership in Industry Case Study, 200

financial support for dependent care, 230−232

improving the retention of junior faculty case study, 222−223

National Science Foundation ADVANCE Program, 196−197

Pioneer Award, 130−131

searching for excellence and diversity, 148−150

speaker representation at scientific and professional society meetings, 126−127

specific steps for overcoming bias, 158

Stanford University’s childbirth policy for female graduate students, 228−229

Task Force on the Retention and Promotion of Junior Faculty, Yale Women Faculty Forum, 100−101

University of Washington Faculty Retention Toolkit, 105

Women in Cell Biology, 203

Women in Science and Engineering Leadership Institute, 224−225

workshops for search committee chairs at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, 148−150

Explicit discrimination, 260−262

Extermination, as intentional discrimination, 262

F

Faculty Advising Faculty Handbook, 145

Faculty attrition, 50−112.

See also Chemistry faculty

case study of chemistry, 104−109

chapter highlights, 50−51

college attendance, and majors, 61−66

college to graduate school, 66−76

conclusion, 109−112

course selection in high school, 59−61

economic impact of, 100−104

factors affecting, 96

findings, 51−52

postdoctoral appointments, 77−78

postgraduate career plans, 76

recommendations, 52−59

Faculty development

and diversity, 221

in the Johns Hopkins Department of Medicine Task Force study, 223

midcareer, 105

Faculty Early Career Development (CAREER) award, 78

Faculty positions, 52, 79−99, 218, 221, 257.

See also Tenure-track faculty careers

departments vs. centers, 99

examining persistence and attrition, 79−99

exiting the tenure track, 91−92

hiring new doctorates into, 80−85, 103

mobility within, 51, 89−92, 174

the “pool,” 85−88

promotion, 93−95

Faculty representation, controversy over models of, 56−58

Faculty retention, 95−99

conflicts between personal and professional life, 97

department climate and a supportive work environment, 97−98

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2007. Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11741.
×

differences in salaries between groups, 95−96

tenure policies and procedures, 96−97

Failure to act, consequences of, as detrimental to the nation’s competitiveness, 4

Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA), 190−191, 194, 207

Family-friendly policies, 162

Family obligations.

See also Maternal wall

and the bias against caregivers, institutional interactions reflecting, 174−175

enabling academic science careers in the context of, 221

Family responsibilities discrimination. See Maternal wall

Federal agencies, 229, 257

encompassing a broad number and range of institutions in their review, 11

encouraging and providing technical assistance on achieving diversity, 11−12

evaluating whether universities have engaged in any types of discrimination, 11

recommendations to, 11−12, 52, 116

Federal enforcement agencies, enforcing the federal anti-discrimination laws, 11, 164−165

Federal standards and compliance issues, in changing institutional processes to combat bias, 238−240

Federation of Clinical Immunological Societies (FOCIS), 127

Feminist colleagues, supporting, 242

Financial support for dependent care, 230−232

from funding agencies and organizations, 231−232

from scientific and professional societies, 230−231

Findings, 2−4

academic organizational structures and rules contributing significantly to the underuse of women in academic science and engineering, 4

consequences of failure to act as detrimental to the nation’s competitiveness, 4

evaluation criteria often containing arbitrary and subjective components that disadvantage women, 3−4

evidence establishing that most men and women hold implicit biases, 3

examining persistence and attrition, 51−52

on institutional constraints, 161−162

on learning and performance, 25−26

problem lying not only in the pipeline, 2−3

on success and its evaluation in science and engineering, 114−115

women as likely to face discrimination in every field of science and engineering, 3

women as possessing the ability and drive to succeed in science and engineering, 2

women who are interested in science and engineering being lost at every educational transition, 2, 51

First-author papers, 77

Flexibility, in tenure-track faculty careers, 105, 201, 207

Foundations. See Funding agencies and foundations

Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Postdoc Childcare Subsidy Program, 230

Funding agencies and foundations, 10−11, 231−232, 257.

See also individual agencies and foundations

collecting, storing, and publishing composite information, 10

creating additional funding mechanisms, 10

enabling use of grant monies for dependent care expenses, 10

establishing policies for extending grant support, 11

expanding support for research, 11

funding postdoctoral appointments, 78

institutional transformation driven by,

and institutional constraints, 211−212

providing workshops, 10

recommendations to, 10−11, 116, 163−164

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2007. Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11741.
×

G

Gender-congruent roles, 135

Gender Differences in Major Federal External Grant Programs, 15

Gender Differences in the Careers of Science, Engineering, and Mathematics Faculty, 22

Gender discrimination, xi, 143−150

Gender equity, 143

bringing about, 112, 243

role of leadership in achieving, 116

universities reaffirming pledge for, 180

Generations, effects of discrimination as cumulating across, 272

Georgi, Howard, 167

Georgia Institute of Technology, Program for Institutional Transformation, 197

Glass ceiling.

See also Maternal wall

institutional interactions reflecting, 152, 179−180

Global competitiveness, and the necessity of change, 1, 13, 217−218

Gordon Research Conferences, 127

Government Accountability Office, 15

Graduate Record Examination scores, 75

Graduate school students, 55, 68−75

attrition of, 75−76

childbirth policy for female, 72, 228−229

Grants

extending support from, funding agencies and foundations establishing policies for, 11

for leadership positions, 129

from scientific and professional societies to members to cover child-care costs, 231

Greenberg, Judith, 131

Group problem solving, 153

Guiterrez, Carlos, 45

H

Halpern, Diane F., 29

Harvard University, 108, 167, 208

Dependent Care Fund for Conference Travel, 230

enabling academic science careers in the context of family obligations, 221

faculty development and diversity, 221

mentoring and advising, 221

Study of New Scholars, 96

sustaining commitment, 220

Task Force on Women Faculty, 18, 220−221

Task Force on Women in Science and Engineering, 18, 212, 219−221

Hate crimes, 262

Hazard analysis, 92

High school

course selection and persistence and attrition, 59−61

graduates completing advanced coursework in mathematics and science, 60

High-threat condition, 48

Higher education organizations.

See also College attendance;

Universities

recommendations for, 9, 163

Higher Education Research Institute, 98

Hildred Blewitt Scholarship, 212

Hiring, through word-of-mouth recommendations, 268

Hirsh, Elizabeth, 191

History, effects of discrimination as cumulating throughout, 272

Honorary societies, 1

recommendations for, 10, 116

Hopkins, Nancy, 81

Hormonal influences, on cognitive performance, 38−39

Human capital, 216

Human Frontier Science Program, 57

I

“Ideal” scientist or engineer, and institutional constraints, 165−167

“Identity-blind” practices, 187

Inclusive work environment

institutional constraints for establishing, 205−210

integrating work into one’s whole life, 207−210

service obligations, 210

Infancy

psychological development in, 39−41

socialization in, 43−44

Information

composite, funding agencies and foundations collecting, storing, and publishing, 10

limited or missing, 266

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2007. Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11741.
×

Innate abilities, 215

Institute of Medicine, 2, 124

Institution-wide transformations, 162

Institutional constraints, 160−213, 256

breaking the conspiracy of silence about minority-group women faculty, 210−211

bringing institutional change, 196−205

chapter highlights, 160−161

conclusion, 212−213

establishing an inclusive work environment, 205−210

findings, 161−162

funding-agency-driven institutional transformation, 211−212

and the “ideal” scientist or engineer, 166−167

the legal landscape, 189−196

pioneers and tipping points, 180−188

recommendations on, 162−165

recruitment, 167−169

Institutional interactions, 169−180

cross-institutional strategy, 224, 226−227

family responsibilities, and the bias against caregivers, 174−175

glass ceilings, 179−180

the maternal wall, 176−179

Institutional structures, new, in changing institutional processes to combat bias, 1, 225−229

Institutions

federal agencies encompassing a broad enough number and range of, in their reviews, 11

where the greatest number of chemistry faculty at research institutions were trained, 109

“Intangible” environment, 238−240

Integration

of available data on gender issues across all fields of science and engineering, 256

of work into one’s whole life, 207−210

Intention vs. attainment, 63

Intentional discrimination

avoidance, 261

banned under anti-discrimination laws, 195

exclusion, 261

explicit, 260−262

extermination, 262

physical attacks, 262

segregation, 261−262

verbal antagonism, 260−261

Inter-institution monitoring organization, 232

InterAcademy Council (IAC), 124

Interactions

institutional, 169−180

social, 54

International Congress of Immunology, 127

Isolation, decreasing in the Johns Hopkins Department of Medicine Task Force study, 222

Issues defined, 22−23

academic medicine, 82−84

anti-discrimination laws, 192−194

building engineering and science talent, 20−21

creating flexibility in tenure-track faculty careers, 201

diversity among women, 18−19

“elephants in the room,” 242

faculty attrition, 96

Title IX, 239

types of discrimination banned under the anti-discrimination laws, 195

universities reaffirming pledge for gender equity, 180

the variability hypothesis, 34−35

J

Jackson, Shirley, 154

Job change, in all faculty ranks and fields, reasons for, 91−92

Johns Hopkins Department of Medicine

academic rewards, 223

decreased isolation, 222

education, 222

faculty development, 223

Improving the Retention of Junior Faculty Case Study, 222−223

leadership, 222

monitoring and evaluation, 223

Task Force on Women’s Academic Careers in Medicine, 222−223

Journals, 143−144

recommendations for, 10, 116

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2007. Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11741.
×

K

Keystone Symposia, 127

KiddieCorp, 231

L

Land of Plenty: Diversity as America’s Competitive Edge in Science, Engineering, and Technology, 20

Language functions, lateralization of, 37

Lasker Prize, 124

Lawyers Life Coach, 121

Leadership positions, 1, 125−135, 152, 179, 188, 242, 257

evaluation of leaders, 129−135

grants and contracts for, 129

in the Johns Hopkins Department of Medicine Task Force study, 222

success and its evaluation in science and engineering, 125−135

Learning and performance, 24−49

in biology, 37−42

chapter highlights, 24−25

in cognition, 28−37

conclusion, 49

findings, 25−26

recommendation, 26

research approaches, 26−28

in society and culture, 42−49

Leave-of-absence policies, 194, 228

Legal standards

comparison with the four types of discrimination, 269−270

landscape of institutional constraints, 189−196

law and the necessity of change, 218

Letters of recommendation, 144

Lovell v. BBNT Solutions, LLC, 193

M

Marriages

dual-career, 170

PhDs with employed spouses, 173

Mass killings, 262

Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), 1, 81, 94−98, 206, 218, 224

Report on Women Faculty in the School of Science, 85

Maternal wall, institutional interactions reflecting, 176−179

Mathematical performance, 29−32

magnitude (“d”) of sex differences in, 36

Mathematics and science, percentage of high school graduates completing advanced coursework in, 60

Mathematics undergraduate degree programs, top reasons for leaving, 67

Measuring Racial Discrimination, 23, 258−274

Medewar, Peter, 26

Media portrayals, of nonwhites versus whites, 262

Medicine, academic, 82−84

Mental rotation ability, 39

Mentoring, 105, 221

of junior faculty, 143, 156, 205−206

of students, individual and perceived institutional value of, 119

Meritocratic system of rewards, 3, 142, 215

Meta-analysis, 27, 33

Millett, Catherine, 71

Minorities. See Racial discrimination;

Women

Minority-group women faculty, breaking the conspiracy of silence about, 210−211

Mobility, within faculty positions, 89−91, 174

Models, of faculty representation, controversy over, 56−58

Monitoring and evaluation, in the Johns Hopkins Department of Medicine Task Force study, 223

Monks, James, 233

Motherhood, 175, 225.

See also Maternal wall

Motivation, controversy over the evolution of, 42

N

Nanny Network, 231

National Academies, 1, 13, 22−23

National Academy of Engineering, 2, 124

National Academy of Sciences, 2, 124

Committee on Women in Science and Engineering, 19

National Aeronautics and Space Administration, 12, 165, 192, 239

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2007. Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11741.
×

National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP), 28−29

National Association of State Universities and Land Grant Colleges, 9, 163, 233

National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), 163, 232, 240

National Educational Longitudinal Survey, 59

National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID), 232

National Institute of General Medical Sciences, 131

National Institute of Standards and Technology, 12, 165

National Institutes of Health (NIH), 12, 129, 165, 192, 224, 226, 232, 239

average research grant award to women and men, 142

Mentored Research Scientist Development Award K01 grant mechanism, 212

Pathway to Independence Award, 78

Pioneer Award, 124, 130−131

Roadmap for Medical Research, 130

Small Business Innovation Research Program, 129

Small Business Technology Transfer Program, 129

National Medal of Science, 124

National Research Council, 56−57

Research Doctorate Programs in the United States: Continuity and Change, 86

National Science Foundation (NSF), 12, 120, 132, 165, 192, 224, 226, 239

ADVANCE program, 144−145, 155, 196−197, 211

Engineering Research Center leadership positions, 138−139

Faculty Early Career Development awards, 78−79

Science and Technology Center leadership positions, 140−141

Survey of Doctorate Recipients, 52, 86, 89

Net present value model, 104

Nettles, Michael, 71

New doctorates, hiring into faculty positions, 80−85

New institutional structures, in changing institutional processes to combat bias, 225−229

“New normal,” 112, 241

New professors, start-up costs associated with, 103

Nine-University Statement on Gender Equity, 241

Nomenclature of ethnicity, current, 15n

Northwestern University, 210

NSF. See National Science Foundation

O

Obstacles, recognizing, 15−22

Occupations of science and engineering PhDs, by sector, 54

O’Connor, Sandra Day, 13

Office of Civil Rights (OCR), 12, 239

Office of Federal Contract Compliance Programs, 193, 238n

On-site child-care, from scientific and professional societies, at a supplemental rate using a high-quality provider, 231

Organizational processes

development, 156

discriminatory, 267−269

pyramidal hierarchy, 216

Ostrow, Ellen, 121

Outgroups, people’s reactions to, 263

P

Packard Fellowship for Science and Engineering, 231

Parenting. See Maternal wall

Pathway to Independence Award, 78

Peer review, 77, 117−118, 143, 146−147

blinded, 146−147

Penk v. Oregon State Board of Higher Education, 191

Performance

judgments of, 117

learning and, 24−49

mathematical, 29−32, 36

spatial, 29−32

verbal and written, 32−36

Persistence, 50−112

case study in chemistry, 104−109

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2007. Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11741.
×

chapter highlights, 50−51

college attendance, and majors, 61−66

college to graduate school, 66−76

conclusion, 109−112

course selection in high school, 59−61

economic impact of faculty attrition, 100−104

faculty positions, 79−99

findings, 51−52

postdoctoral appointments, 77−78

postgraduate career plans, 76

recommendations, 52−59

PhD pools, proportion of women in, 16−17

Physical attacks, as intentional discrimination, 262

Pioneer Award, 124, 130−131

Pioneers, institutional constraints on, 180−188

Pipeline, 56

findings concerning problems with, 2−3

science, engineering, and technology, 20

“Polycarbonate ceiling,” breaking through, 132

The “pool,” 85−88

proportion of women in, 16−17

Postdoc Childcare Subsidy Program, 230

Postdoctoral appointments, 77−78

examining persistence and attrition, 77−78

funding source, 78

professional development and productivity from, 77−78

Postgraduate career plans, and examining persistence and attrition, 76

Potential of women in academic science and engineering unfulfilled, 214−243

blueprint for action, 219−241

call to action, 12, 241−243

changing institutional processes to combat bias, 219−241

reasons change is necessary, 217−218

root causes of disparities, 214−217

Potential points of discrimination, within five domains, map of, 271

Pregnancy Discrimination Act (PDA), 190, 193

Presidential Early Career Awards for Scientists and Engineers (PECASE), 78

women awardees, 79

Presumed competence, benefits of, 216

Primary Caregiver Technical Assistance Supplements, 232

Primer on anti-discrimination laws, 192−194

Americans with Disabilities Act, 194

Equal Pay Act, 193

equal protection, 193

Executive Order 11246, 193

Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993, 194

Pregnancy Discrimination Act, 193

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 192

Title IX, 192

Princeton University, 218, 224

Problem solving

differences in, 36

group, 153

Productivity

and building a career, 113, 117−120

from postdoctoral appointments, 77−78

Professional development, 116

from postdoctoral appointments, 77−78

Professional Opportunities for Women in Research and Education (POWRE), 98−99, 196

Professional societies, 9−10

honorary societies, 10

journals, 10

recommendations to, 9−10, 52−53

scientific and professional societies, 9−10

Professors, start-up costs associated with new, 103

Profiling, 265−267

Profits, increasing, 153

Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), 33

Promotions, 52, 93−95

Provosts, recommendations for, 7−8

Provost’s Committee on the Status of Women, 222

Psychiatric disorders, 37

Psychological development, in infancy, 39−41

Publication productivity, and building a career, sex differences in, 113, 121−123

Pyramidal organizational hierarchy, 216

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2007. Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11741.
×

Q

Quigley, Jim, 202

R

Racial discrimination, 259−263

racial steering, 268

in US society, 151, 267

RAND Corp., 15

Recognition, and building a career, 123−125

Recommendations, 7−12

to Congress, 12

for examining persistence and attrition, 52−59

to federal agencies, 11−12

to funding agencies and foundations, 10−11

on institutional constraints, 162−165

on learning and performance, 26

to professional societies and higher education organizations, 9−10

on success and its evaluation in science and engineering, 115−117

to universities, 7−9

Recruitment, 52

institutional constraints on, 167−169

targeted, 156

Rehabilitation Act of 1973, 191

Reimbursements, from scientific and professional societies to members to cover child-care costs, 231

Report on Women Faculty in the School of Science, 85

Representation. See Faculty representation

Required policies and procedures, failure to maintain banned under anti-discrimination laws, 195

Research approaches, 23

benefits of presumed competence, 216

blinded peer review, 146−147

gender differences in the careers of science, engineering, and mathematics faculty, 22

gender factors in, 118

to learning and performance, 26−28

making diversity work, 156−157

meta-analysis, 27

stereotype threat, 46−47

top research articles on the effects of bias on evaluation, 158

workplace pioneers as “Men in Skirts,” 183−187

Research I (R1) institutions, 22, 74, 86, 91−93, 104−108, 123

chemistry faculty positions at, 108

number of faculty hired at, selected by sex, 110

Research productivity. See Productivity

Research project grants (RPGs), 129

Resources, access to, 122

Retaliation, banned under anti-discrimination laws, 195

Retention. See Faculty retention

“Review” paradigm, 93

Rising Above the Gathering Storm, 13

Roadmap for Medical Research, 130

Role congruity theory, 65

RPGs. See Research project grants

Rutgers University, 98

S

Salaries, 52.

See also Differences in salaries between groups

average start-up packages for assistant professors in selected fields starting at public Research I universities, 102

Sanctions, in changing institutional processes to combat bias, 239

Schmader, Toni, 46

Scholastic Aptitude Test (SAT), 24−25, 28−35, 46

Schultz, George, 85

Science

engineering and mathematics (SEM) careers, 34−35, 45, 66, 69

and technology (SET) pipeline, 20

technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) faculty, 168

Science and engineering

applicant pool and faculty positions at the University of California, Berkeley, 88

identifying barriers to success in, 200−205

welcoming and encouraging all our nation’s people to excel in, 243

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2007. Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11741.
×

Science and engineering doctorate recipients (of PhDs)

30-44 years old, spousal employment of, 172−173

hiring new doctorates into faculty positions, 80−85

location and type of planned postgraduate study for US citizens and permanent resident, by sex, 76

occupations of, by sector, 54

percentage of women, 14

by race or ethnicity and sex, 70−71

in tenured or tenure-track positions, by sex, marital status, and presence of children, 171

top 10 US baccalaureate institutions of, 74

Science and Engineering Equal Opportunities Act of 1980, 218

Science and engineering talent, building with the CAWMSET and BEST Projects, 20−21

Science and engineering undergraduate degree programs

bachelor’s degree recipients, 64−65, 80

percentages of first-year college students intending to major in science and engineering, by sex and race or ethnicity, 62−63

persistence to degree, 61−63

by sex and race or ethnicity, 64−65

top reasons for leaving, by sex, 67

Scientific and professional societies, 1, 116, 229−231

on-site child-care at a supplemental rate using a high-quality provider, 231

providing grants or reimbursements to members to cover child-care costs, 231

recommendations for, 9−10, 163

speaker representation at meetings of, 126−127

Scorecard for Evaluating How Well Research Universities Serve Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 9, 53, 234−237.

See also Continuous evaluation scorecard

Search committees, workshops for chairs of, at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, 148−150

Segregation, as intentional discrimination, 261−262

Self-confidence, challenge of maintaining, 75

Self-nomination, 131

Self-perpetuating discrimination, 266

Self-reported faculty hours, 121

Service obligations, 206, 210

Sexual harassment, 203

banned under anti-discrimination laws, 195

Shalala, Donna E., xi−xiv

Silence. See Conspiracy of silence

Sloan Foundation, 197−198

Small Business Innovation Research Program, 129

Small Business Technology Transfer Program, 129

Small-win experiments, 162, 197−200

Social effects

on infants and children, 43−44

on undergraduate attrition, 63−66

on women’s cognitive performance, 45−49

Social interactions, 54

Social psychology, 135

Social tipping points, 187−188

Society and culture, 42−49

education, 44−45

and learning and performance, 42−49

Spatial performance, 29−32, 41

Speaker representation, at scientific and professional society meetings, 126−127

Spousal employment, 160

of science and engineering PhDs, 30-44 years old, 172

Stacy, Angelica, 168

Standardized tests, 33

Stanford University, 208, 218−219

childbirth policy for female graduate students, 72, 228−229

Start-up costs, associated with new professors, 103

Statistical discrimination, 265−267

Steele, Claude, 46

Steering, racial, 268

Stereotypes

gender, 26, 40, 43−44, 143−145, 152

racial, 190, 265, 269

reducing use of, in hiring, 150

religious, 42

threat of, 46−47, 116

Strategies. See Experiments and strategies

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2007. Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11741.
×

Strategies and Tactics for Recruiting to Improve Diversity and Excellence (STRIDE) program, 150

Structural discrimination, 267−268.

See also Institutional structures

Study of Faculty Worklife at the UW-Madison, 148

Study of New Scholars, 96

Subtle bias and discrimination

difficult to document, 264−265

implicit or unexamined, 151−153

indirect prejudice, 263

unconscious and automatic, 262−265

Success and its evaluation in science and engineering, 113−159

building a career, 117−125

chapter highlights, 113−114

conclusion, 159

evaluation of success, 135−159

findings, 114−115

leadership positions, 125−135

moving beyond bias, 159

recommendations, 115−117

tournament model of, 216

Support

for research, funding agencies and foundations expanding, 11

in the work environment, and faculty retention, 97−98

Supreme Court, 268

Survey of Doctorate Recipients, 52

T

Talent Imperative: Diversifying America’s Science and Engineering Workforce, 21

Targeted recruitment, 156

Task Force on Faculty Recruitment and Retention, 100−102

Task Force on the Retention and Promotion of Junior Faculty, 100−101

Task Force on Women Faculty (WF-TF), 18, 220−221

Task Force on Women in Science and Engineering (WISE-TF), 18, 219−221

Task statement, 256−257

Teleconferencing, xiii

Tensions between personal and professional life, 84, 97

Tenure, 51, 92−93, 242

Tenure policies and procedures, and faculty retention, 96−97

Tenure-track faculty careers, 50, 55, 91

exiting, 91−92

flexibility in, 201

proportion of women in, by field, 16−17

Tenured faculty, 218, 221, 242

recommendations for, 8, 52, 115−116, 257

Theories of discrimination, 259−274

comparison of legal standards with the four types of discrimination, 269−270

domains in which discrimination operates, 270−272

map of potential points of discrimination within five domains, 271

role of cumulative disadvantage, 272−273

summary, 274

types of discrimination, 260−269

“There Goes the Neighborhood?,” 153−155

Tipping points, institutional constraints on, 180, 188

Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 189, 238

Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 189, 192, 218, 238, 268

Title IX of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, 189, 192, 218, 232−233, 238−240

To Recruit and Advance Women Students and Faculty in US Science and Engineering, 19

Tournament model of success, 216

Tracking and evaluation, 23

Alfred P. Sloan Awards for faculty career flexibility, 198

American Chemical Society Directory of Graduate Research, 90

American Institute of Physics Academic Workforce Survey, 90

Association of American Medical Colleges’ Faculty Roster, 90

Scorecard for Evaluating How Well Research Universities Serve Women and Minorities in Science and Engineering, 234−237

Transitions, educational, 55

women being lost at every, 2, 51

Transparency, 105

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2007. Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11741.
×

Travel allowances, 231

Trower, Cathy, 18

Trustees, recommendations for, 7−8, 115

Types of discrimination, 260−269

banned under the anti-discrimination laws, 195

U

Unconscious discrimination, 262−265

Undergraduate degrees. See Science and engineering undergraduate degree programs

Underrepresented minorities (URMs), 87−88

Underuse of women in academic science and engineering, academic organizational structures and rules contributing significantly to, findings concerning, 4

Unintended consequences, in changing institutional processes to combat bias, 239−241

Universities, 1, 7−9, 256

Cornell University, Child Care Grant Subsidy, 230

deans and department chairs and their tenured faculty, 8

Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Postdoc Childcare Subsidy Program, 230

Harvard University, Dependent Care Fund for Conference Travel, 230

importance of progress toward equality on their campuses, 214

reaffirming pledge for gender equity, 180

recommendations to, 7−9, 53

trustees, university presidents, and provosts, 7−8

university leaders working with their faculties and department chairs, 9

University of Washington, Childcare Voucher Program, 230

University leaders, recommendations for, 9, 115−116, 162−163

University of California, Berkeley, 86, 108, 167−168, 209

biological and health sciences applicant pool and faculty positions at Berkeley, 87

faculty advancing through the ranks, by sex and field, 94

faculty positions at, and the applicant pool in physical sciences, mathematics, and engineering, 88

faculty self-reported hours per week engaged in professional work, housework, and caregiving, 121

University of Colorado at Boulder, 95−98

Task Force on Faculty Recruitment and Retention, 100−102

University of Michigan, 224

NSF ADVANCE program, 144−145, 155

STRIDE program, 150

University of Washington, 66, 191, 208

Childcare Voucher Program, 230

Faculty Retention Toolkit, 105

University of Wisconsin-Madison, 169

WISELI program at, 147−150, 221

workshops for department chairs at, 224−225

workshops for search committee chairs at, 148−150

University presidents, recommendations for, 7−8

Unmarried scientists, 168, 174, 226, 228

V

Variability hypothesis, 31−32, 34−35

Verbal antagonism, as intentional discrimination, 260−261

Verbal performance, 32−36

Vest, Chuck, 215

W

Western European notions, dominant, 211

Women

biases against, 215

as chief editors at top-ranked journals, by field, 125, 133−134

diversity among, 18−19

as faculty in the School of Science at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 85

as likely to face discrimination in every

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2007. Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11741.
×

field of science and engineering, findings concerning, 3

as a minority, 166

nominated to an honorific society or for a prestigious award, 128

as possessing the ability and drive to succeed in science and engineering, findings concerning, 2, 114

social effects on cognitive performance of, 45−49

Women CAREER and PECASE awardees, 79

Women in Cell Biology (WICB), 203

Women in science and engineering.

See also Underuse of women in academic science and engineering

career opportunities for, 257

declining proportions of, 14

evidence refuting commonly held beliefs about, 5−6

minority, xii

PhD chemists working full-time at PhD-granting institutions, by rank and sex, 111

Women in Science and Engineering Leadership Institute (WISELI), 147−150, 197

Climate Workshops for Department Chairs, 224−225

Women interested in science and engineering, being lost at every educational transition, findings concerning, 2, 51

Women’s Initiative, 204

Women’s Participation in the Sciences Has Increased, but Agencies Need to Do More to Ensure Compliance with Title IX, 15

Word-of-mouth recommendations, hiring through, 268

Work, integrating into one’s whole life, 207−210

Work environment

inclusive, institutional constraints for establishing, 205−210

“intangibles” in, 238

service obligations, 210

supportive, and faculty retention, 97−98, 219−221

Workplace pioneers, as “Men in Skirts,” 183−187

Workshops

funding agencies and foundations providing, 10

for search committee chairs, at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, 148−150

Written performance, 32−36

Y

Yale Women Faculty Forum, 99−101

Z

Zare, Richard, 218

Zero-sum game, 262

Suggested Citation:"Index." National Academy of Sciences, National Academy of Engineering, and Institute of Medicine. 2007. Beyond Bias and Barriers: Fulfilling the Potential of Women in Academic Science and Engineering. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press. doi: 10.17226/11741.
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The United States economy relies on the productivity, entrepreneurship, and creativity of its people. To maintain its scientific and engineering leadership amid increasing economic and educational globalization, the United States must aggressively pursue the innovative capacity of all its people—women and men. However, women face barriers to success in every field of science and engineering; obstacles that deprive the country of an important source of talent. Without a transformation of academic institutions to tackle such barriers, the future vitality of the U.S. research base and economy are in jeopardy.

Beyond Bias and Barriers explains that eliminating gender bias in academia requires immediate overarching reform, including decisive action by university administrators, professional societies, federal funding agencies and foundations, government agencies, and Congress. If implemented and coordinated across public, private, and government sectors, the recommended actions will help to improve workplace environments for all employees while strengthening the foundations of America's competitiveness.

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