Index
A
α-linolenic acid. See Alpha-linolenic acid
AA. See Arachidonic acid
Aboriginal communities, 229
ACF. See Administration for Children and Families
“Action Levels for Poisonous or Deleterious Substances in Human Food and Animal Feed,” 175
ADA. See American Dietetic Association
Adequate dietary intake (ADI), 146
Adequate intake (AI), 21, 69–70
ADHD effects.
See also Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 462–473
randomized controlled trials, 462–471
ADI. See Adequate dietary intake
Administration for Children and Families (ACF), 269
Adolescent males, adult males, and females who will not become pregnant, specific guidance for healthy consumption, 8, 208, 210, 265
Adult chronic disease studies, 494–677
adult asthma and allergies, 626–627
aging and other neurological outcomes, 658–669
secondary prevention, with cardiovascular outcomes, 494–559
Adults at risk for cardiovascular disease, specific guidance for healthy consumption, 8, 208
Adults at risk for chronic disease, research recommendations for, 14
Adverse health effects
associated with omega-3 supplementation, 174–175
coronary heart disease, 67
of dioxins and dioxin-like compounds, 141
information available on, 199
of polybrominated diphenyl ethers, 148
of polychlorinated biphenyls, 143–145
Advertising and promotion, and the current information environment influencing seafood choices, 225
Advisories and warnings about seafood consumption, 21–24.
See also Federal advisories about seafood consumption;
State advisories about seafood consumption
European Food Safety Authority, 25
UK’s Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition, 24
World Health Organization, 26
African Americans, in the MEC Study, 38–39
AGA. See American Gastroenterological Association
Agency for Health Research and Quality (AHRQ), 67, 96, 250–251
Evidence Report/Technology Assessment No. 93, 98
Aging and neurological outcome studies, 104, 658–669
Agricultural Marketing Act, 223
Agricultural Research Service (ARS), 207
AHA. See American Heart Association
AhR. See Arylhydrocarbon receptor
AHRQ. See Agency for Health Research and Quality
AI. See Adequate intake
ALA. See Alpha-linolenic acid
Alaskan Native populations, current seafood intake by, 40–41
Allergy and asthma studies, 103, 626–627.
See also Food allergies
cross-sectional studies, 626–627
effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 474–485
effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 378–387
effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 458–461
immunity and benefits to infants from postnatal supplementation through formula, 88
randomized controlled trials, 474–475
Alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), 18, 21, 45, 48, 53, 69–70, 150, 290
dietary intake of fatty acid, 50–51
ALSPAC. See Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children
Alzheimer’s disease, 104
research recommendations on, 14, 108
American Dietetic Association (ADA), recommendations from, 20–21
American Gastroenterological Association (AGA), 166–168
American Heart Association (AHA) Dietary Guidelines, recommendations from, 19–20
American Indian populations, current seafood intake by, 40–41
Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning (ASP), 170
Analytic samples of the most common seafood types, research recommendations on obtaining larger, 13, 60
Analytical data, recommendations for consistently revising, 7, 178
Animal studies, 144
on allergy effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 418–419
on cognitive and motor development effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 452–457
on development effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 370–377
Annual occurrence of parasitic infections due to consumption of seafood, 167
Antimicrobial/antifungal agents, used at some time for aquaculture production in the US, 171
Antimicrobial resistance in seafood, 176
Aquaculture, 149, 164, 171, 176, 213, 224, 253, 280
Arachidonic acid (AA), 75–76, 78, 86, 88
Arctic Circle campaign, 240
Aromatic compounds, chlorinated, 142
cross-sectional studies, 614–615
randomized controlled trials, 612–613
ARS. See Agricultural Research Service
Arsenic, risks associated with seafood consumption, 138
Arylhydrocarbon receptor (AhR), 145
Asian American populations, current seafood intake by, 39–40
ASP. See Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning
Asthma, 89.
See also Allergy and asthma studies
Atherosclerosis, carotid, 134, 280
Atrial fibrillation, 101
Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), 89
effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 462–473
Audience segmentation, 10, 238
Avoidance, of fish from polluted harvest locations, 169, 231
Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC), 78, 81–83, 132
B
Balancing benefits and risks of seafood consumption, 2–9, 195–216
benefits associated with nutrients from seafood, 4–5
consumption of seafood in the US, 3–4
risks associated with seafood, 5–6
scientific benefit-risk analysis for seafood consumption, 198–213
Bayesian hierarchical model, 129, 280
Bayley Psychomotor Development scores, 80
Bayley Scales of Infant Development Mental Index (MDI), 85–86
Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), 72
Benchmark dose (BMD)
Benchmark dose lower bound (BMDL), 123, 128, 136–137
Bender Visual Motor Gestalt Test, 127
Benefit-risk analysis, 198, 233, 280
identifying target populations for seafood consumption, 253
Benefits and risks of seafood consumption
balancing for healthy consumption, 7–9, 197–198, 207–211, 248
decision pathways for balancing, 9, 212
designing communications to support informed decision-making, 250–271
guidance for healthy consumption for adolescent males, adult males, and females who will not become pregnant, 208, 210
guidance for healthy consumption for adults at risk of cardiovascular disease, 208
guidance for healthy consumption for children up to age 12, 207–210
guidance for healthy consumption for females who are or may become pregnant or who are breast-feeding, 207, 209
population groups and appropriate guidance in balancing, 8
for population subgroups, research recommendations, 13, 60
recommendations for balancing, 7
supporting consumer seafood consumption decisions, 10–13, 248–273
Benefits associated with nutrients from seafood, 4–5, 69–70
allergy and immunity, 88
cardiovascular disease, cardiovascular mortality, and all-cause morbidity and mortality, 91–106
to children, 89
cognitive and motor development, 85–88
development in infants and children, 77–84
duration of gestation and birth weight, 73–77
to the general population, 68–69
to infants and children associated with prenatal omega-3 fatty acid intake, 73–84
to infants from postnatal supplementation through formula, 80, 84–89
for prevention of adult chronic disease, 91–107
recommendations on, 107
research recommendations on, 107–108
transfer of maternal DNA to the fetus or breastfeeding infant, 73
visual acuity, 85
to women, infants, and young children associated with omega-3 fatty acids, 71–90
Benefits to women during and after pregnancy, 71–73
preeclampsia, 71
summary of evidence, 73
Bioaccumulative pollutants in seafood, 281
of dioxins, 141
Biomarkers of contaminant exposures, research recommendations on, 15, 179
Biomonitoring, 151
Bioreactors, 54
Biosynthesis of long-chain fatty acids, 291
Birth weight
effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 322–337
randomized controlled trials, 322–329
Bis(methylmercuric)selenide (BMS), 153
Blood cholesterol, high, 20
high, 20
and protective factors in fish, 135
Blood pressure studies, 602–611
cross-sectional studies, 610–611
observational studies, 100–101
randomized controlled trials, 100, 604–609
BMD. See Benchmark dose
BMDL. See Benchmark dose lower bound
BMI. See Body Mass Index
BMS. See Bis(methylmercuric)selenide
Body burdens, 281
of MeHg, 138
Body mass index (BMI), 100
Body weight, excess, 20
Boston Naming Test, 126–127, 131, 281
Brain vulnerability, 137
Brazil, 133
Brominated compounds, potential hazards from, 139
Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency, 126
Brunet-Lezine’s developmental quotient, 85–86
C
CAD. See Coronary artery disease
Cadmium, risks associated with seafood consumption, 138, 152
California
a “core state” for management plan to reduce Vibrio vulnificus illness, 159, 162
California Verbal Learning Test, 126–127, 131
Cancer, 104
liver, 144
research recommendations on, 14, 108
Cancer slope factor (CSF), 146
randomized controlled trials, 628–629
review studies, 628–631, 656–657
Carcinogenicity, 141
Cardiac indicator studies, randomized controlled trials, 616–617
Cardiac risk, reducing, 20
Cardioprotective effects, of EPA/DHA supplements, 92, 94
Cardiovascular disease (CVD), 91–106
aging and other neurological outcomes, 104
allergy and asthma, 103
cancer, 104
cardiovascular benefits to specific population groups, 91–92
fibrinogen, 102
indicators of glucose tolerance in diabetes, 103
platelet aggregation, 103
risk of, 211
and seafood benefits for prevention of adult chronic disease, 91–106
seafood or omega-3 fatty acid consumption and coronary heart disease, 92–96
toxicity of methylmercury, 133–135
Cardiovascular health, 138, 252
benefits of seafood consumption for, 25
benefits to specific population groups, 91–92
Cardiovascular Health Study, 98
Carotid atherosclerosis, 134, 280
Case-control studies, 281
on ADHD effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 472–473
on aging and other neurological outcomes, 666–669
on allergy and asthma effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 480–483
on development effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 364–367
on gestation and birth weight effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 336–337
on preeclampsia effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 306–311
on secondary prevention, with cardiovascular outcomes, 550–557
Catenation, 291
CDC. See Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
CD4RO+ immune cells, 88
Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), 153, 155
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), 144, 153–155, 250
CFR. See Code of Federal Regulations
Challenge to California’s Proposition 65, 223
Changes in benefits and risks
associated with changes in consumption patterns, 200–207
substitution impact on selected contaminants, 202–203
substitution impact on selected nutrients, 201–202
uncertainties in substitution analysis, 203, 207
Changes in supply and demand, concerning future seafood supplies, 42–43
Charge to the committee, 26–27
approach to the task, 27
CHD. See Coronary heart disease
Chemotherapeutants, risks associated with, 171–174
Child health outcomes, 67
Childbearing. See Women
Children.
See also Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children
with behavioral disorders, research recommendations on better designing studies about EPA/DHA supplementation in, 14, 108
benefits to, 89
research recommendations for, 10, 14
supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 462–485
up to age 12, specific guidance for healthy consumption, 8, 207–210
on ADHD effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 462–473
on allergy and asthma effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 474–485
on allergy effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 378–387
China, 138
Chlordane, 22
Chlorinated aromatic compounds, 142
Cholera, 155
Cholesterol, 281.
See also High-density lipoprotein cholesterol;
Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol
concentrations of, 94
high blood, 20
Chromium, risks associated with seafood consumption, 138
Chronic diseases, 67.
See also Adult chronic disease studies
Clinical Guide to Preventive Services, 250–251
Clostridium botulinum, reducing risk of seafoodborne illness from, 165
on allergy effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 388–389
on cognitive and motor development effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 420–421
on secondary prevention, with cardiovascular outcomes, 496–497
Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), 175
Coexposures, 152
Cognitive and developmental outcomes in infants, 73, 79–83, 87
and benefits to infants from postnatal supplementation through formula, 85–88
effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 420–457
research recommendations on, 13–14, 107–108
Cognitive decline, age-related, 104
Cohort studies
on adult asthma and allergies, 626–627
on aging and other neurological outcomes, 658–667
on allergy effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 386–387, 412–417
on cognitive and motor development effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 450–451
on development effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 350–365
on gestation and birth weight effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 330–335
on postpartum depression effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 314–319
on preeclampsia effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 304–305
on secondary prevention, with cardiovascular outcomes, 522–549
Collaborative approaches, 266
in federal coordination and communicating health messages through nontraditional partners, 269–270
Committee on EPA’s Exposure and Human Health Reassessment of TCDD and Related Compounds, 140–141
Committee on Nutrient Relationships in Seafood, 129
Committee on the Implications of Dioxin in the Food Supply, 146
Committee on the Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury, 128
Committee on Toxicity (COT) of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment, 24
Communication tools for information about seafood consumption
research recommendations on developing more effective, 15, 241
supporting informed decision-making, pretest and post hoc evaluation of, 270
synergism in, 271
Confidence intervals, 130
Confidentiality, 225
multiple, 144
patterns of, 148
Congenital Miamata Disease, 124–125
Conservation, of seafood, 689–690
Consolidated advice, need for, 12, 240–241
Consultation on Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Disease, 21
Consumer-based benefit-risk analyses needed, 12, 240
Consumer-centered information design, 259
Consumer decision-making
as the basis for the design of consumer guidance, 10, 217–247
impact of information on, 230–238
research recommendations on, 241
setting the stage for designing consumer guidance, 238–239
Consumer guidance, 10
example of decision pathways for, 254
prior fragmentation of, 11
tools regarding nutritional benefits, recommendations for using the decision pathway to develop, 12, 271
Consumer Reports, 259
Consumer seafood consumption decision-making
as the basis for the design of consumer guidance, research recommendations on understanding, 241
decision path needed, tailored to individual circumstances, 12, 240, 254
developing a seafood information program, 248
recommendations for supporting, 11–13
research recommendations on designing better consumer advice, 15, 241
right-to-know perspective, 266
Consumption. See Seafood consumption
Contaminants of concern in seafood, 17, 55–59.
See also individual contaminants
impact of toxicants on selenium status, 58–59
levels among types of fish, research recommendations on distribution of, 14, 178–179
naturally occurring or introduced, 17
persistent organic pollutants, 57–58
waters known to contain, 37
Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals (CSFII), 69, 146
Continuous Performance Test, 126–127
Cooperative Extension network, 270
Coordination, across agencies, 266
Core states, Vibrio vulnificus Management Plan, table of compliance for, 161
Coronary artery disease (CAD), 93
Coronary heart disease (CHD), 67, 91, 94, 135, 200
COT. See Committee on Toxicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment
Council for State and Territorial Epidemiologists, 155
Country of origin labeling, 223–224
Coxsackie virus, 292
Cross-contamination issues, 173
Cross-sectional studies
on adult asthma and allergies, 626–627
on allergy effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 418–419
on development effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 366–369
on postpartum depression effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 71–72, 320–321
Crypthecodinium cohnii, 54
CSF. See Cancer slope factor
CSFII. See Continuing Survey of Food Intake by Individuals
CSPI. See Center for Science in the Public Interest
Current information environment influencing seafood choices, 221–230
advertising and promotion, 225
improving, 249
labels and other point-of-purchase information, 222–224
Northern Contaminants Program, 228–230
Web-based health information, 225–229
Current seafood intake
by American Indian/Alaskan Native and First Nations populations, 40–41
by Asian American populations, 39–40
by the general population, 34–37
multiethnic cohort study of, 38–39
by population subgroups, 37–42
by sport and subsistence fishers, 41–42
Current seafood safety hazards, controls, and risks, 156–157
CVD. See Cardiovascular disease
D
DALY. See Disability adjusted life years
Danish Diet, Cancer, and Health Study, 101
DART. See Diet and Angina Randomized Trial
FDA and US EPA safety levels in regulations and guidance, 680–682
recommendations for seafood and EPA/DHA consumption, 678–679
studies on adult chronic diseases, 494–677
studies on women, infants, and children, 298–493
DDE. See Dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethane
DDST. See Denver Developmental Screening Test
DDT. See Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane
Decision-making, knowledge about and interest in, 10
Decision pathways
balancing benefits and risks associated with seafood consumption, 9, 11, 212
for consumer guidance, example of, 254
for seafood meal analysis, example of, 255
Decision support for consumers, communications to support informed decision-making, 251–258
Decision trees, 211
Denver Developmental Screening Test (DDST), 82–83, 127
Department of Agriculture (USDA), 18–19, 33, 153, 207, 228, 269
Department of Commerce, 26, 30
Department of Health and Human Services (DHHS), 7, 18–19, 21, 178
Depression, research recommendations on, 14, 108
Depression Era, 31
Designing communications to support informed decision-making, 250–271
collaborative approaches, 269–270
decision support for consumers, 251–258
embedding consumer advice within a larger consumer information program, 270–271
interactive health communication, 250–251
need for pretest and post hoc evaluation, 270
presenting quantitative benefit-risk information, 258–269
research recommendations on, 15
Detoxification mechanisms, 152
Development in infants and children, 77–84
associated with prenatal omega-3 fatty acid intake, 77–84
and infant and child allergies, 83–84
in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 338–377
and sleep patterns, 83
Developmental Test of Visual-Motor Integration, 126
DGA. See Dietary Guidelines for Americans
DGAC. See Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee Report
DHA. See Docosahexaenoic acid
DHHS. See Department of Health and Human Services
Diabetes, 174
cross-sectional studies, 624–625
randomized controlled trials, 618–623
Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP), 170
Dichlorodiphenyl dichloroethane (DDE), 150
Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), 22, 174
Diet, Nutrition and the Prevention of Chronic Diseases, 26
Diet and Angina Randomized Trial (DART), 100
Dietary guidance, 10
for the general population, 7, 107
receiving new, 218
Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee (DGAC) Report, 19, 49, 201
recommendations from, 18
Dietary Guidelines for Americans (DGA), recommendations from, 19, 68, 70
Dietary practices, and vulnerable populations, 689
Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs), 21, 69
Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act (DSHEA), 175
Dietary supplements.
See also Fish oil supplementation
as sources of EPA and DHA, 54–55
Dietitians of Canada, 20
Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds (DLCs), 21–22, 25, 58, 121, 139–141, 174, 203, 251, 282
adverse health effects, 141
bioaccumulation in seafood, 141
classified as “carcinogenic,” 141
exposure limits in foods, 146
exposures from seafood, 146–147, 199
impact on selenium status, 58
recent declines in, 140
“Dirty dozen” (of POPs in United Nations Environment Programme), 139–140
Disability adjusted life years (DALY), 196, 260
Distribution of seafood consumed, by place it was consumed, 38
DLCs. See Dioxins and dioxin-like compounds
Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), 18, 20–22, 26, 30, 45, 48–55, 67–80, 83–108, 134–135, 290.
See also EPA/DHA
food sources of, 53
supplementation with, 86
Docosapentaenoic acid (DPA), 72, 75, 135
Doctor diagnoses, 72.
See also Health care providers
Dopamine, 89
Dose-effect relationship curve, 143
Dose-response relationships, 95, 129, 282
between chemical contaminants and adverse health effects, research recommendations on, 14, 179
studies of EPA/DHA in pregnant and lactating women, research recommendations on, 13, 107
DPA. See Docosapentaenoic acid
Draft Reassessment, 146
DRIs. See Dietary Reference Intakes
DSHEA. See Dietary Supplement Health and Education Act
DSP. See Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning
Duration of gestation and birth weight, 73–77
associated with prenatal omega-3 fatty acid intake, 73–77
and EPA/DHA intake from seafood and other food sources, 75–77
and fish oil supplementation, 74–75
Dutch studies. See The Netherlands
Dyslexia, 89
Dyslipidemia, 99
E
EAR. See Estimated Average Requirement
Ecological studies
on allergy and asthma effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 482–485
on secondary prevention, with cardiovascular outcomes, 558–559
Economic considerations, associated with food choice behavior, 219, 221
Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale (EPDS), 72
EFSA. See European Food Safety Authority
eHealth, 225
Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), 18, 20–22, 26, 30, 45, 48–55, 67–80, 84, 87–108, 290.
See also EPA/DHA
food sources of, 52
Electrodiagnostic studies, 133
Electronegativities, 292
Ends objectives networks, developing, 196
Environmental chemical risks associated with seafood consumption, 121–151
arsenic, 138
cadmium, 138
chromium, 138
lead, 138
levels of POPs in seafood, 149–150
manganese, 138
persistent organic pollutants, 138–150
Environmental influences, on food consumption decisions, 219
EPA. See Eicosapentaenoic acid;
US Environmental Protection Agency
EPA/DHA, 45–55, 195, 202–203, 252, 260, 265, 267–268
consumption of high compared to low EPA/DHA content seafood, 49–54, 238–239
intake from seafood and other food sources, and duration of gestation and birth weight, 75–77
non-animal sources of omega-3 fatty acids, 52–54
qualified health claims labeling, 222–223
EPA/DHA supplementation
adverse effects associated with, 174
research recommendations on the potential effect on various conditions, 14, 108
EPDS. See Edinburgh Postpartum Depression Scale
EPIC. See European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition
Epidemiological studies, 282
assessing intake of specific species of seafood, research recommendations on, 14, 108
New Zealand Study, 127
Seychelles Child Development Study, 126
Essentiality, of selenium, 292–293
Estimated Average Requirement (EAR), 69
Estimation
of EPA/DHA in seafood portions, 261–264, 267–268
of methylmercury in seafood portions, 262–264, 267–268
of total cases for different foodborne bacterial illnesses based on actual reported cases, 158
European Food Safety Authority (EFSA), 25
advice on seafood consumption, 25
European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC), 100
Evidence-based recommendations, 11–12, 104, 240
Expenditure elasticity, 219
Experts
distrusting, 252
identifying target populations, 251–252
F
Factor VII activity, 102
Family Seafood Selection Scenario, 239, 686
FAO. See Food and Agriculture Organization
Farmed fish. See Aquaculture
Faroe Islands Study
epidemiological study on methylmercury, 75–76, 125–128, 132–133, 136–137, 153
Fatty acids.
See also Highly unsaturated fatty acid;
Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids;
Omega-3 fatty acids;
Saturated fats;
individual fatty acids
FDA. See Food and Drug Administration
FDCA. See Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act
Federal advisories about seafood consumption, 21–23
committees on, 266
Federal Register, 224
Fetal development, 77
benefits of seafood consumption for, 25
FFQ. See Food Frequency Questionnaire
Findings
on balancing benefits and risks of seafood consumption, 213–214
on benefits associated with nutrients from seafood, 4–5
on benefits for prevention of adult chronic disease, 106–107
on benefits to women, infants, and young children associated with omega-3 fatty acids, 89–90
on consumption patterns and composition of seafood, 3–4, 59–60
on health risks associated with seafood consumption, 6, 176–178
on understanding consumer decision-making as the basis for the design of consumer guidance, 11, 239–240
First Nations populations, 133, 283
current seafood intake by, 40–41
Fish, 17.
See also Aquaculture
carnivorous, 43
conservation and sustainability, 689–690
fatty, 21
locally caught, 22
as traditional foods, 40
types consumed in the US, 48
types high and low in EPA/DHA, 49, 290
types high in methylmercury, 22
Fish advisories. See Advisories and warnings about seafood consumption
Fish-oil supplementation, 4–5, 54–55, 67, 70, 71, 79, 83, 100, 101–102, 175, 258
contents of, 142
and duration of gestation and birth weight, 74–75, 77, 89
Fishery Management Councils (8 regional), 43
feeding to hens, 52
Florida, 168
a “core state” for management plan to reduce Vibrio vulnificus illness, 159, 162
Fluorinated compounds, potential hazards from, 139
Focus groups, 250
Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FDCA), 223
Food allergies, foods most commonly implicated in, 173
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) (United Nations), 21
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), 7, 21, 54, 146, 149, 167, 178, 199, 207
focus groups, 250
guidelines for voluntary point-of-purchase nutrition information program, 222
recommended controls to reduce or eliminate potential parasite hazards from seafood, 168, 174
and US EPA safety levels in regulations and guidance, 680–682
Food choice behavior, 10, 218–230
understanding consumer decision-making as the basis for the design of consumer guidance on, 218–230
Food consumption decisions, 218–219
economic considerations associated with food choice behavior, 219, 221
environmental influences, 219
identification of factors influencing, 218–219
impact of, 221
individual influences, 218
Food Frequency Questionnaire (FFQ), 38, 283
Food intolerances, 173
Food sources among the US population
of DHA, 53
of EPA, 52
Food Standards Agency (FSA) (UK), 24, 259
FoodLink database, 33
Framework, for factors influencing healthy eating and physical activity behaviors, 220
Free amino acids, 170
Frequency of seafoodborne illnesses, estimating, 154–155
Freshwater fish, 17, 133–134, 166
FSA. See Food Standards Agency (UK)
Functional foods, 283
research on qualified health claims as applied to, 235–238
Future seafood supplies, 42–45
changes in supply and demand, 42–43
impact of aquaculture on seafood supplies, 42–43
G
Generally recognized as safe (GRAS), 54
Germany, 143
Gestation
effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 322–337
randomized controlled trials, 322–329
GISSI-Prevenzione. See Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell’Infarto Miocardico trial
Global mercury pollution, 122
Global production, 283
of fish oil, 54
Global tests, 86
Glucose tolerance in diabetes, indicators of, 103
Governmental agencies, 217
Graphical presentation of information, substitute question approach with, 257
GRAS. See Generally recognized as safe
Great Lakes, fish from, 150
Grooved Pegboard, 126
Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Sopravvivenza nell’Infarto Miocardico (GISSI-Prevenzione) trial, 93
Guidance.
See also Previous seafood consumption guidance
overall, role of, 248
Guidance for Industry and FDA: Interim Procedures for Qualified Health Claims in the Labeling of Conventional Human Food and Human Dietary Supplements, 223
Gyrus
differentiating, 125
precentral, 287
H
HACCP. See Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point
Harvard Vanguard Medical Associate, 81
HAV. See Hepatitis A infections
Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Point (HACCP), 164, 166–168, 170, 173–174
Hazard ratio (HR), 95, 101, 283
HDL-C. See High-density lipoprotein cholesterol
Head Start, 269
Health and Human Services. See Department of Health and Human Services
Health Belief Model, describing health behavior, food choice, and behavior change, 684
Health benefits associated with nutrients in seafood, 67–120
associated with omega-3 fatty acids, 69–70
to the general population associated with nutrients in seafood, 68–69
and optimal intake levels for EPA and DHA, 69–70
for prevention of adult chronic disease, 91–107
to women, infants, and young children associated with omega-3 fatty acids, 71–90
Health care providers
advice from, 10
large networks of, 266
Health effects of methylmercury
cardiovascular toxicity, 133–135
on critical target organs, 124–135
neurological toxicity, 124–133
research recommendations on, 14, 108
Health risk appraisals (HRAs), 250–251, 284
recommendations on, 11–12, 240
Health risks associated with seafood consumption, 121–194
environmental chemicals, 121–151
interactions between nutrients and contaminants in seafood, 152–153
recommendations on, 178
research recommendations on, 14–15, 178–179
risks associated with more acute seafoodborne hazards, 153–176
selenium and seafood contaminants, 152–153
Healthfulness
choosing, 218
claims of, 235
in eating pattern, 222
Healthy People objectives, 19
Heavy metals, 21
Heparin-binding proteins, 153
Hepatitis A (HAV) infections, 165
HHS. See Department of Health and Human Services
High-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C), 94, 99, 285
Highly unsaturated fatty acid (HUFA), 76
Histamine poisoning, 169, 284.
See also Scombroid poisoning
Hopkins Symptom Check List (HSCL), 72
HR. See Hazard ratio
HRAs. See Health risk appraisals
HSCL. See Hopkins Symptom Check List
HUFA. See Highly unsaturated fatty acid
Human pathogens, associated with seafood, 163
Hyperglycemics, 174
I
IARC. See International Agency for Research on Cancer
IFT. See Institute of Food Technologists
IgE. See Immunoglobin E
IHC. See Interactive health communication
IL. See Interleukin
Immunoglobin E (IgE), 83
Immunosuppressive effects, 174
Impact of aquaculture on seafood supplies, future, 42–43
Impact of federal fish advisories, 232–234
Impact of information on consumer decision making, 230–238
evaluating the effects of previous seafood consumption guidance, 232–238
understanding consumer decision-making as the basis for the design of consumer guidance, 230–238
Impact of state fish advisories, 234
Impact of toxicants on selenium status, 58–59
dioxin, 58
polychlorinated biphenyls, 58–59
Implementation, embedding consumer advice within a larger consumer information program, 270–271
IMT. See Intima-media thickness
Inconsistencies in sampling and analysis methodology, recommendations on, 7, 178
Indian Study on Infarct Survival, 94
See also individual indigenous peoples
Individual influences, on food consumption decisions, 218
Infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake
allergy effects in, 83–84, 378–387
cohort studies, 386–387, 412–417
cross-sectional studies, 418–419
randomized controlled trials, 378–385, 394–411
on allergy effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 378–387
on allergy effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 458–461
on cognitive and motor development effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 420–457
on development effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 338–377
on gestation and birth weight effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 322–337
research recommendations, 13–14, 265
Information environment
influences on food choice, 10
using alternative formats, 256
Ingredient and nutrition labeling, 222
Institute of Food Technologists (IFT), 172
Institute of Medicine (IOM), 26, 146, 292
Intake, acceptable ranges of, 15, 179
Integration of data, from the New Zealand, Faroe Islands, and Seychelles studies of prenatal methylmercury neurotoxicity, 129–131
Intelligence quotient (IQ), 87, 129–130, 138
Intention scores, 87
Interactions between nutrients and contaminants in seafood, health risks associated with, 152–153
Interactive health communication (IHC)
online, 225
to support informed decision-making, 250–251
Interagency task force to coordinate seafood issues, recommendations for developing, 12, 271
Interagency Working Group on Mercury Communications, 232
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC), 141
International Conference on Emerging Infections and Diseases, 161
Interstate Shellfish Sanitation Conference (ISSC), 159, 162
Vibrio vulnificus Management Plan, table of compliance for core states, 161
Intima-media thickness (IMT), 134, 284
IOM. See Institute of Medicine
IQ. See Intelligence quotient
Iraq, mass poisoning episode in, 128–129
Irradiation, 161
ISSC. See Interstate Shellfish Sanitation Conference
J
Japan, PCB poisoning in, 144
Japanese Americans, in the MEC Study, 38–39
Jargon, used by experts, 252
JECFA. See Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants
Joint Expert Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants (JECFA) (FAO/WHO ), 26, 125, 148
K
Keshan disease, 292
L
LA. See Linoleic acid
Labels and other point-of-purchase information, 10, 222–224
country of origin and other labeling, 223–224
and the current information environment influencing seafood choices, 222–224
effectiveness and effects of health claims, 234–238
ingredient and nutrition labeling, 222
new requirements, 176
regulated point-of-purchase information, 224
restaurant and fast-food menu information, 224
Laotian Americans, 40
Latinos, in the MEC Study, 38–39
LCPUFA. See Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids
LDL-C. See Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol
Lead, risks associated with seafood consumption, 138
Life Course Perspective, describing health behavior, food choice, and behavior change, 219, 684
Lifetime effects, 136
Linear regression analyses, 95, 284
Linoleic acid (LA), 78
Lipid profiles studies, 582–601
randomized controlled trials, 582–599
Lipophilic compounds, 141, 174, 265, 284
Lipoprotein (a) (Lp[a]), 99, 285
Listeria monocytogenes (Lm), 285
reducing risk of seafoodborne illness from, 164–165
Local public health departments, 269
Locally caught fish, 22
Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA), 51, 54, 59, 75, 78, 98
Longitudinal studies of beneficial outcomes to women and children from seafood consumption, 81–82
Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children, 81–82
Project Viva, 81
Louisiana, a “core state” for management plan to reduce Vibrio vulnificus illness, 159, 162
Low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-C), 99, 174, 285
Low infant birth rate, 73
Lp(a). See Lipoprotein (a)
Luncheon meats, nutrients in, 46–47
M
MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory (MCDI), 82, 86–87
Malignant melanomas, 144
Manganese, risks associated with seafood consumption, 138
Marine animals, 17
Massachusetts, 80
Matching familiar figures test (MFFT), 87
Maternal health outcomes, 67, 72
McCarthy Scales of Children’s Abilities, 127
MCDI. See MacArthur Communicative Development Inventory
MDI. See Bayley Scales of Infant Development Mental Index
MEC. See Multiethnic Cohort Study
MeHg. See Methylmercury (MeHg)
Melanomas, malignant, 144
Mental Processing Composite (MPCOMP), 79
Mercury, 22.
See also Methylmercury
burdens in the US population, 123–124
forms of, 152
and mine workers, 152
online calculators of, 226–229, 250
Mercury-to-selenium ratio, 152
on allergy effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 390–393
on assessing outcomes other than cardiovascular, research recommendations on, 14, 108
on secondary prevention, with cardiovascular outcomes, 494–495, 498–499, 516–519
Metalloid elements, 291
Methylmercury (MeHg), 21, 121–138, 251, 265, 285.
See also Health effects of methylmercury
blood levels, 133
concentrations in seafood, 56–57
fish types high in, 22
hair levels, 123, 126–127, 129, 136
major epidemiological studies on, 126–127
mercury burdens in the US population, 123–124, 133
prenatal exposure, 129
risks associated with seafood consumption, 122–138, 152
warnings of potential danger from, 18, 45
MFFT. See Matching familiar figures test
MI. See Myocardial infarction
Microalgae, 21
Microbiological hazards, 153–168
estimating frequency of seafoodborne illnesses, 154–155
reducing risk of seafoodborne illness, 155, 159–168
risks associated with, 153–168
Mini-Mental Status Examination, 133
Mollusks, 17, 154–155, 165, 176, 285
Monitoring of methylmercury and POPs.
See also Biomonitoring
by federal agencies, recommendations for increasing, 7, 178
Monte Carlo analysis, 137, 286
Mortality, all-cause, 93
Mothers. See Women
MPCOMP. See Mental Processing Composite
Multiethnic Cohort (MEC) Study, current seafood intake by, 38–39
Myocardial infarction (MI), 93, 100, 134, 138, 286
MyPyramid food guidance system, 19, 286
recommendations from, 19
N
National associations, 269
National Fish Meal and Oil Association, 175
National Food and Nutrient Analysis Program, 207
National Food Consumption Survey, 219
National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES), 27, 33, 36, 49, 57, 123–124
National Institutes of Health (NIH), 207, 249
National Listing of Fish Advisories database, 22
National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS), 26, 30–33, 43
disappearance data by seafood type, 32
Science Board, 26
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), 7, 26–27, 178
National Report of Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals, 144
National Research Council (NRC), 128, 135, 140
National School Lunch Program, 19
National Shellfish Sanitation Program, 162
National Uniformity for Food Act, 223
Native American populations.
See also Indigenous peoples
current seafood intake by, 40–41
Native Hawaiians, in the MEC Study, 38–39
Naturally occurring toxins, 168–171
ciguatera and scombroid, 168–170
risks associated with, 168–171
Navigator, 259
NCP. See Northern Contaminants Program
Neurodevelopmental effects, as children mature, 137, 143, 197
Neurological outcomes
mechanisms of methylmercury impact on, 689
Neurological toxicity of methylmercury, 124–133, 689
nutritional factors moderating, 137
Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning (NSP), 170
Neurotoxins, 55
Neurotransmitters, 89
New Jersey, 138
New Zealand Study, epidemiological study on methylmercury, 125, 127, 129, 136–137
Newark Bay Complex anglers, 41–42
NGOs. See Nongovernmental organizations
NHANES. See National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey
NIH. See National Institutes of Health
NLV. See “Norwalk-like” viruses
NMFS. See National Marine Fisheries Service
No observed adverse effect level (NOAEL), 128, 148
NOAA. See National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
NOAEL. See No observed adverse effect level
Non-animal sources of omega-3 fatty acids, 52–54
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), 217
Northern Contaminants Program (NCP), and the current information environment influencing seafood choices, 228–230
Northern Dwellers, 40–41, 229, 286
Northern Finland Birth Cohort, 72
“Norwalk-like” viruses (NLV), 165
Novelty preference, 87
NRC. See National Research Council
NSP. See Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning
Numerical information, presenting graphically, 259
Nurses’ Health Study, 97, 103, 286
Nutrient benefits from seafood, 689
Nutrient profiles of seafood compared to other foods in the diet, 45–55
sausages and luncheon meats, 46–47
Nutrient relationships in seafood
dietary practices and vulnerable populations, 689
mechanisms of methylmercury impact on neurological outcomes, 689
nutrient benefits from seafood, 689
seafood as a dietary component, 688
seafood conservation and sustainability, 689–690
selections to balance benefits and risks, 687–690
Nutrition Business International, 54
Nutrition Facts panel, 222
O
OA. See Oleic acid
Observational studies, 104, 286
of seafood or EPA/DHA intake in the general population, 94–96
Oceans Alive, 225
OCs. See Organochlorine compounds
Oleic acid (OA), 78
Omega-3 fatty acids (n-3 fatty acids), 26, 30, 45, 67, 287, 289–290
AHA intake recommendations, 20
and coronary heart disease, 92–96
derivation of, 290
observational studies of seafood or EPA/DHA intake in the general population, 94–96
randomized controlled trials in high risk populations, 92–94
sources of, 199
WHO intake recommendations, 150
Omega-6 fatty acids (n-6 fatty acids), 26, 287
Online consumer information and advocacy sites which include mercury calculators, 226–229, 250
Online seafood information and advocacy, 225, 228
Open trials, on postpartum depression effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 312–313
Optimal intake levels for EPA and DHA, 69–70
Optimistic Bias, describing health behavior, food choice, and behavior change, 684
OR. See Odds ratio
Organic mercury. See Methylmercury (MeHg)
Organochlorine compounds (OCs), 58
Orkney Islands, 75
Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine, 104–105
Oxidative stress, modulation of, 58
P
PAHs. See Polyaromatic hydrocarbons
Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning (PSP), 170
Parasites and products involved in documented incidences of parasitic infection, 166
reducing risk of seafoodborne illness from, 166–168
Paratyphoid, 164
Partnerships, between federal agencies and community organizations and individual health care providers, recommendations for developing, 12–13, 271–272
PBDEs. See Polybrominated diphenyl ethers
PCBs. See Polychlorinated biphenyls
PCDDs. See Polychlorinated
di-benzo-p-dioxins
PCDFs. See Polychlorinated di-benzofurans
PDI. See Psychomotor Developmental Index
PEN-3, describing health behavior, food choice, and behavior change, 684
People’s League of Health, 74
Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), 121, 138–150, 251, 287
dioxins and dioxin-like compounds, 139–141
polybrominated diphenyl ethers, 147–148
polychlorinated biphenyls, 142–145
risks associated with seafood consumption, 138–150
Stockholm agreement (2003), 139
toxicity and recommended intake limits for dioxins, DLCs, and PCBs, 145–147
Phospholipid (PL)-associated fatty acid, 72, 101
PHP. See Post-harvest processing
“Pink Book,” 249
PL. See Phospholipid
Platelets, 287
aggregations of, 103
Point estimates, 130
Point-of-purchase nutrition information, 10, 271
FDA guidelines for voluntary program of, 222, 224
Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), 174
Polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), 58, 147–148
adverse health effects, 148
Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), 21–22, 25, 58, 76, 121–122, 142–145, 174, 199–200, 251
adverse health effects of, 143–145
bioaccumulation of, 142–143, 230
dioxin-like, 58
exposures to, 144
impact on selenium status, 58–59
Polychlorinated di-benzo-p-dioxins (PCDDs), 58
Polychlorinated di-benzofurans (PCDFs), 58
POPs. See Persistent organic pollutants
Population subgroups
balancing benefits and risks, 8
current seafood intake by, 37–42
Portions.
See also Seafood portions
number needed to consume 100 mg EPA/DHA in animal protein foods, 202
Post-harvest processing, procedures, 160–161
Post hoc evaluation, need for, 270, 287
Postnatal supplementation through formula, benefits to infants from, 84–89
Postpartum depression
and benefits to women during and after pregnancy, 71–72
in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 312–321
Postpartum depression studies, 312–321
cross-sectional studies, 320–321
randomized controlled trials, 312–313
Precentral gyrus, 287
Preeclampsia, 288
and benefits to women during and after pregnancy, 71
effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 71, 298–311
randomized controlled trials, 298–303
Pregnant women or women who may become pregnant, 10, 22, 45, 164, 238–239
case scenario, 683
research recommendations for, 13
Prenatal omega-3 fatty acid intake, benefits to infants and children associated with, 73–84
Presentation, of quantitative benefit-risk information, 258–269
Preterm delivery, 74
Pretest evaluation, need for, 270
Prevention of adult chronic disease, recommendations concerning seafood benefits for, 107
Previous seafood consumption guidance, 232–238
impact of federal fish advisories, 232–234
impact of state fish advisories, 234
labeling effectiveness and effects of health claims, 234–238
research on qualified health claims as applied to functional foods, 235–238
Previously cooked food, 164
Problem-solving, 87
Program evaluation, 249–250, 259
Promotions, and the current information environment influencing seafood choices, 225
Proposition 65 (California), 223–224
challenge to, 223
Prospective cohort studies, 288.
See also European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition
Protein sources, 198
Provisional Tolerable Weekly Intake, 148, 288
PSP. See Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
Psychobiological factors, 219
Psychomotor Developmental Index (PDI), 85–86
Public Health Service Act, 269, 288
Public Media Center, 224
Q
QALYs. See Quality Adjusted Life Years
Qualified health claims
as applied to functional foods, research on, 235–238
Quality Adjusted Life Years (QALYs), 196, 233, 260
Quantitative characterization
of dose-response relationships, research recommendations on, 15, 179
risk information, 249
R
Randomized clinical trials (RCTs), 84
Randomized controlled trials (RCTs), 71, 100, 104, 221
on ADHD effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids, 462–471
on allergy and asthma effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids, 474–475
on allergy effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 378–385, 394–411
on allergy effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 460–461
on blood pressure, 100, 604–609
on cardiac indicators, 616–617
on cognitive and motor development effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 424–447
on development effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 338–347
on gestation and birth weight effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 322–329
on postpartum depression effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 312–313
on preeclampsia effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 71, 298–303
on secondary prevention, with cardiovascular outcomes, 500–515
Raw seafood, 162, 167–168, 176
RCTs. See Randomized clinical trials;
Randomized controlled trials
RDA. See Recommended Dietary Allowance
Ready-to-eat (RTE) food, 164
Recalls. See 24-hour recalls of dietary intake
Recommendations.
See also Research recommendations
on balancing benefits and risks, 7
better tools for consumers to be developed by federal agencies, 11–12, 240
for consistently revising analytical data, 7, 178
on consolidated advice needed to bring benefit and risk considerations together, 12, 240–241
for consumer-based benefit-risk analyses, 12, 240
for a consumer-directed decision path, tailored to individual circumstances, 12, 240
on developing an interagency task force to coordinate seafood issues, 12, 271
on developing partnerships between federal agencies and community organizations and individual health care providers, 12–13, 271–272
for health risk appraisals, 11–12, 240
on health risks associated with seafood consumption, 178
on inconsistencies in sampling and analysis methodology, 7, 178
on increasing monitoring of methylmercury and POPs by federal agencies, 7, 178
for pregnant females or females who may become pregnant, 7, 107
on seafood benefits for prevention of adult chronic disease, 107
on servings, 42
for supporting consumer seafood consumption decisions, 11–13
for testing consumer messages to identify spillover effects for non-targeted population segments, 12, 241
on understanding consumer decision-making as the basis for the design of consumer guidance, 240–241
on using the decision pathway to develop consumer guidance tools regarding nutritional benefits, 12, 271
Recommendations for seafood and EPA/DHA consumption, 18–21, 678–679
American Dietetic Association, 20–21
American Heart Association Dietary Guidelines, 19–20
consumption advice, on staying within applicable advisories, 7, 107
dietary advice to the general population, 7, 107
Dietary Guidelines Advisory Committee, 18
Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 19, 68, 70
MyPyramid food guidance system, 19
seafood as a component of a healthy diet, 7, 107
Recommended Dietary Allowance (RDA), 69, 222
“Red-amber-green” traffic light labeling, 259
Reference Dose (RfD), 128, 135–137, 146, 199, 235, 250, 288
Reference levels, for fetal exposure to methylmercury, 128
Regression coefficient, 130, 288
Regulated point-of-purchase information, 224
Relative rates, of laboratory-confirmed cases of Yersina, Escherichia coli, Campylobacter, and Salmonella, 159
Research recommendations, 13–15
for additional data needed to assess benefits and risks of consumption for population subgroups, 13, 60
for adults at risk for chronic disease, 14
on Alzheimer’s disease, 14, 108
on better defining optimum intake levels of EPA/DHA for infants and toddlers, 14, 108
on better designing studies about EPA/DHA supplementation in children with behavioral disorders, 14, 108
on biomarkers of contaminant exposures, 15, 179
for children, 14
on cognitive and developmental outcomes in infants, 13–14, 107–108
on comparing outcomes for US women consuming EPA/DHA and those in other countries, 13, 107
on consumption patterns and composition of seafood, 60
on data needed on distribution of contaminant levels among types of fish, 14, 178–179
on designing better consumer advice, with understanding of consumer decision-making, 15, 241
on developing more effective communication tools for information about seafood consumption, 15, 241
on dose-response relationships between chemical contaminants and adverse health effects, 14, 179
for dose-response studies of EPA/DHA in pregnant and lactating women, 13, 107
for epidemiological studies assessing intake of specific species of seafood, 14, 108
on the health effects of contaminants like methylmercury, 14, 108
on health risks associated with seafood consumption, 14–15, 178–179
for infants and toddlers, 13–14
on meta-analyses needed to assess outcomes other than cardiovascular, 14, 108
on obtaining larger analytic samples of the most common seafood types, 13, 60
on the potential effect of seafood consumption and/or EPA/DHA supplementation on various conditions, 14, 108
for pregnant and lactating women, 13
on quantitative characterization of dose-response relationships, 15, 179
on seafood benefits for prevention of adult chronic disease, 107–108
on seafood consumption, 13
on systematic surveillance studies of targeted subpopulations, 13, 60
on understanding consumer decision-making as the basis for the design of consumer guidance, 241
Restaurant information, 224
Review studies
on ADHD effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 462–463
on allergy and asthma effects in children supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in foods, 476–479
on allergy effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 388–389, 410–411
on allergy effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 458–459
on cognitive and motor development effects in infants supplemented with omega-3 fatty acids in formula, 420–423, 448–449
on development effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 338–339, 346–349
on postpartum depression effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 312–313
on preeclampsia effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 71, 298–299
on secondary prevention, with cardiovascular outcomes, 498–499, 520–521
RfD. See Reference Dose
Rice oil, contaminated, 144
Risk of seafoodborne illness
adverse effects associated with omega-3 supplementation, 174–175
assessing, 288
and chemotherapeutants, 171–174
from Clostridium botulinum, 165
from Listeria monocytogenes, 164–165
from microbiological hazards, 153–168
from naturally occurring toxins, 168–171
“risk-relationship” analysis, 197–198
“risk-risk” analysis, 197
“risk-trade-off” analysis, 197
from Salmonella, 164
from seafood allergens, 172–174
from Vibrio-associated illness, 155, 159–162
from viruses, 165
Risk Specific Dose (RsD), 146
Ross Laboratories, 87
RR. See Relative risk
RsD. See Risk Specific Dose
RTE. See Ready-to-eat food
S
S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), 153
SACN. See Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (UK)
Safe Eating Guidelines (state), 22, 24
Salmonella spp., 288
reducing risk of seafoodborne illness from, 164
SAM. See S-adenosylmethionine
Saturated fats, 288
content in commonly consumed animal food products, 69
SCDS. See Seychelles Child Development Study
Schizochytrium sp., 54
SCID-CV. See Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Axis I Disorders—Clinical Version
Scientific Advisory Committee on Nutrition (SACN), advice on seafood consumption, 24
Scientific benefit-risk analysis for seafood consumption, 198–213
acknowledging limitations of the benefit-risk analysis, 211–213
balancing the benefits and risks to arrive at specific guidance for healthy consumption, 207–211
evaluating changes in benefits and risks associated with changes in consumption patterns, 200–207
identifying and determining the magnitude of the benefits and risks, 198–200
identifying important benefits and risks in the balancing process, 200
Scombroid poisoning, 168–170, 288
Scotland, 75
Seafood allergens
misidentifications of, 173
risks associated with, 172–174
Seafood consumption, 30–42, 688.
See also Fish
advice from outside the US, 24–26
contaminants of concern in, 55–59
and coronary heart disease, 92–96
current intake by population subgroups, 37–42
current intake by the general population, 34–37
current safety hazards, controls, and risks, 156–157
estimates by EPA/DHA content classification, 50
in fast-food restaurants, 36, 224
future seafood supplies, 42–45
general trends and predictions for supply and sources of popular fish, 44
health risks associated with, 121–194
with high versus low EPA/DHA content, 49–54
individualizing messages about for different groups, 10
nutrient profiles of seafood compared to other foods in the diet, 45–55
regional differences in, 33
research recommendations on, 13–14, 60, 108
selecting a variety of, 22, 138
staying within applicable advisories, 7, 107
Seafood meal analysis, example of decision pathways for, 255
Seafood portions
EPA/DHA in, estimating, 261–264, 267–268
methylmercury in, estimating, 262–264, 267–268
number needed to consume 100 mg EPA/DHA in animal protein foods, 202
Seafoodborne illnesses
estimating frequency of, 154–155
reducing risk of, 155, 159–168
traced to molluscan shellfish, 158
Second World War, 31
Secondary prevention studies with cardiovascular outcomes, 494–559
meta-analysis, 494–495, 498–499, 516–519
randomized controlled trials, 500–515
review studies, 498–499, 520–521
Selenium, 45, 152, 202, 290–294
methylation of, 294
plants accumulating, 294
and seafood contaminants, health risks associated with, 152–153
toxicity of, 294
Selenoproteins, 58
and biological functions, 293–294
Selenosis, 294
Self-rating questionnaire, 72
Serotonin, 89
Serving size.
See also Seafood portions
Seychelles Child Development Study (SCDS), epidemiological study on methylmercury, 125–126, 128, 136–138, 153
See also Mollusks
Silver, risks associated with seafood consumption, 152
Sleep patterns, and development in infants and children, 83
Slogans, role of, 248
Sources
of protein, 198
Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC), 19, 269
Spillover effects, for non-targeted population segments, recommendations for testing consumer messages to identify, 12, 232, 241
Sport and subsistence fishers, current seafood intake by, 41–42
State advisories about seafood consumption, 22, 24, 269
about Vibrio vulnificus, 159
impact of, 234
Stereoacuity, 79
hemorrhagic, 97
ischemic, incidence of, 96
research recommendations on, 14, 108
Structured Clinical Interview for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition, Axis I Disorders–Clinical Version (SCID-CV), 72
Studies
current seafood intake by, 41–42
Substitution analysis, 207, 253
with graphical presentation of information, 257
impact on selected contaminants of changes in consumption patterns, 202–203
impact on selected nutrients of changes in consumption patterns, 201–202
with tabular presentation of information, 256
Succinic dehydrogenase, 294
Sulfiting agents, exposure to, 173
Supplementary information on nutrients of special interest in seafood, 289–295
Supplements. See Dietary supplements;
Fish-oil supplementation
Surveillance studies, of targeted subpopulations, research recommendations on systematic, 13, 60
Sustainability, of seafood, 689–690
Symptoms
of seafoodborne illness, early onset of, 154
of selenium deficiency, 292
Synergism, 143
T
Tabular presentation of information, substitute question approach with, 256
TACs. See Teller Acuity Cards
Taiwan, PCB poisoning in, 144
Target populations, 10–11, 238, 250, 266
expert identification of, 251–252
Taste, 219
TCDD. See 2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin
TDI. See Tolerable Daily Intake
Technical jargon, used by experts, 252
TEFs. See Toxicity Equivalency Factors
Teller Acuity Cards (TACs), 79, 85
TEQ. See Toxicity Equivalency
Test of Oral Language Development, 127
2,3,7,8-Tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin (TCDD), 58, 140–141, 145–146
Texas, a “core state” for management plan to reduce Vibrio vulnificus illness, 159, 162
TG. See Triglycerides
Theoretical models describing health behavior, food choice, and behavior change, 684
Health Belief Model, 684
Life Course Perspective, 684
Optimistic Bias, 684
PEN-3, 684
Transtheoretical Model, 684
Third National Report on Human Exposure to Environmental Chemicals, 124
Thresholds, 143
Toddlers’ research recommendations, 13–14, 67, 265
Tolerable Daily Intake (TDI), 146, 206
Tools for consumers, to be developed by federal agencies, recommendations for improving, 11–12, 240
Total Diet Study, 146
analyses of dioxin-like compounds in seafood, 59
Total seafood, percentage of persons using food, and quantities consumed in a day, 36–37
Toxic Substance Control Act (TSCA), 142
Toxicity, 289
DLC exposure limits in foods, 146
DLC exposures from seafood, 146–147
neurological, of methylmercury, 124–133
and recommended intake limits for dioxins, DLCs, and PCBs, 145–147
of selenium, 294
Toxicity Equivalency Factors (TEFs), 140, 145, 289
values from WHO, 145
Toxicity Equivalency (TEQ), 145
Toxins, 289.
See also Neurotoxins
Transfers, of maternal DNA to the fetus or breastfeeding infant, associated with prenatal omega-3 fatty acid intake, 73
Transplacental gradient, 78
Transtheoretical Model, describing health behavior, food choice, and behavior change, 684
Trends
in future seafood supplies, 43–45
Triacylglycerol concentrations, 94
TSCA. See Toxic Substance Control Act
Tumor promoters, 141
Tuna, light vs. white, 34–35, 203, 266
24-hour recalls of dietary intake, 33, 280
U
Uncertainty factor (UF), 211, 213, 289
in substitution analysis, and changes in consumption patterns, 203, 207
UNEP. See United Nations Environmental Programme
United Nations Environmental Programme (UNEP), 122, 139
US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), 7, 21–23, 122, 135–137, 140–141, 144, 146, 178, 199
national fishing advisories from, 22–23, 232–233
USDA. See Department of Agriculture
USEPA. See US Environmental Protection Agency
V
Variety of seafood, selecting for consumption, 22, 138
Vegetarians, 21
VEP. See Visual evoked potential
Vibrio parahaemolyticus, 155, 162
Vibrio vulnificus, 154–155, 289
cases of illness involving commercial oyster products, 160
reducing risk of seafoodborne illness from, 155, 159–162
state reports for, 159
Vibrio vulnificus Management Plan, table of compliance for core states, 161
Viruses, reducing risk of seafoodborne illness from, 165
Visual acuity, 79
and benefits to infants from postnatal supplementation through formula, 85
and sensory-motor development, 78–79
Visual evoked potential (VEP) acuity procedure, 85
Visual information, superiority over text or numbers, 258
Visual recognition memory (VRM), 82
W
Walnut oil, 21, 45–46, 53, 150
Warnings. See Advisories and warnings about seafood consumption
Waters, known to contain contaminants, 37
Web-based health information, 22, 30, 225–229, 249, 253
and the current information environment influencing seafood choices, 225–229
interactive health communication, 225
online seafood information and advocacy, 225, 228
Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, 126–127
Whites, in the MEC Study, 38–39
WHO. See World Health Organization
WIC. See Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children
Women
of childbearing age, 22
Inuit, 41
postpartum depression, 312–321
who are or may become pregnant or who are breast-feeding, specific guidance for healthy consumption, 8, 207, 209, 265
who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 298–321
on allergy effects in infants and children of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 378–387
on development effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 338–377
on gestation and birth weight effects in infants of mothers who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 322–337
on postpartum depression effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 312–321
on preeclampsia effects in women who increase seafood and/or omega-3 fatty acid intake, 298–311
Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Achievement, 126
Workshop presentations, 27
World Health Organization (WHO), 125, 140, 145–146
advice on seafood consumption, 21, 26, 128, 150
World War II, 31
Z