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PAPERBACK price:$22.95 add to cart Rights & Permissions Free PDF Access Sign in to download PDF book and chapters Free Resources PODCAST: Ready, Set, SCIENCE!: Putting Research to Work in K-8 Science Classrooms [10] mB Display this book on your site! Related Titles Educating Teachers of Science, Mathematics, and Technology: New Practices for the New Millennium How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School: Expanded Edition Other Related Titles Ready, Set, SCIENCE!: Putting Research to Work in K-8 Science Classrooms (2007) Board on Science Education (BOSE) Center for Education (CFE) Citation Manager Export the bibliographic data for this book in your chosen format Web Search Builder Use this book's key terms to search within this book, across our collection, or across the Web. Skim This Chapter Skim this chapter and use this chapter's key terms to search within this book. Reference Finder Paste in your own text to find books that relate to your topic. Citation Manager Michaels, Sarah, Shouse, Andrew W., Schweingruber, Heidi A.. "Index." Ready, Set, SCIENCE!: Putting Research to Work in K-8 Science Classrooms. Washington, DC: The National Academies Press, 2007. Please select a format: Page 187   E-mail Share on facebook Facebook Share on delicious Delicious Share on stumbleupon Stumble Share on twitter Twitter More Sharing ServicesMore The following HTML text is provided to enhance online readability. Many aspects of typography translate only awkwardly to HTML. Please use the page image as the authoritative form to ensure accuracy. Index A Accountable Talk in Math and Science Project, 167 Activities. See Classroom investigations Adelson, Glenn, 167 Administrators, 16, 162-163 African Americans, 99 Air as matter, 42 properties of, 45-54, 72-75 Altimeter, 26, 30 American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), 59 Argument ambiguity in language and, 93 as collaboration, 87 cultural diversity in, 97-100 discomfort of educators with, 92-93, 165 encouraging, 92-93, 165-166 forms of, 88-89 goals of, 89 learning through, 15, 32, 33, 68, 88-89 mediating, 93 norms for presenting, 21, 89, 92, 95-96, 136, 165-166 Assessments. See also State Assessments for atomic-molecular theory learning progression, 176-178 statutory requirement, 2 supporting science learning, 16, 35, 151 Atomic-molecular theory of matter assessment items, 176-178 conceptual change in understanding, 43, 45-56 core concepts in, 72, 76, 128 design of learning progression, 64-65, 151 language of science in, 65 learning progressions, 43, 44, 45-54, 59, 66-69, 72-75, 84-85 Molecules in Motion activity (grade 7), 45-54 multidisciplinary nature of, 60, 84 Mystery Box activity (grades K-2), 61, 65, 66-69 Nature of Gases activity (grades 6-8), 79-83, 168 Properties of Air activity (grades 3-5), 72-75 Autism, 95 B Behavior of students, 1, 23, 31, 95-96 Benchmarks for Science Literacy, 18, 62-63, 153 Biodiversity activity, 128, 151 case study, 22-27 ecosystem balance, 128-129 modeling species variability, 119-124 proficiency strands, 28-34 Biodiversity in a City Schoolyard, 22-27, 112, 119-124 Biology atomic-molecular theory and, 60 conceptual change in, 42, 43 curriculum tools, 114, 116, 119-124, 169 growth representation, 114-124 naïve understanding of, 28-29, 38, 42 reasoning skills of young children, 39 Struggle for Survival unit, 130-131 Biology Guided Inquiry Learning Environment (BGuiLE), 130, 132-133 Page 187 Front Matter (R1-R18) 1 A New Vision of Science in Education (1-16) 2 Four Strands of Science Learning (17-36) 3 Foundational Knowledge and Conceptual Change (37-58) 4 Organizing Science Education Around Core Concepts (59-86) 5 Making Thinking Visible: Talk and Argument (87-108) 6 Making Thinking Visible: Modeling and Representation (109-126) 7 Learning from Science Investigations (127-148) 8 A System That Supports Science Learning (149-166) Notes (167-170) Appendix A - Questions for Practitioners (171-175) Appendix B - Assessment Items Based on a Learning Progression for Atomic-Molecular Theory (176-178) Appendix C - Academically Productive Talk (179-180) Appendix D - Biographical Sketches of Oversight Group and Coauthors (181-186) Index (187-194) Acknowledgments (195-196) Credits (197-200) Order Form (201-202)

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Ready, Set, Science!: Putting Research to Work in K-8 Science Classrooms Index A Accountable Talk in Math and Science Project, 167 Activities. See Classroom investigations Adelson, Glenn, 167 Administrators, 16, 162-163 African Americans, 99 Air as matter, 42 properties of, 45-54, 72-75 Altimeter, 26, 30 American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), 59 Argument ambiguity in language and, 93 as collaboration, 87 cultural diversity in, 97-100 discomfort of educators with, 92-93, 165 encouraging, 92-93, 165-166 forms of, 88-89 goals of, 89 learning through, 15, 32, 33, 68, 88-89 mediating, 93 norms for presenting, 21, 89, 92, 95-96, 136, 165-166 Assessments. See also State Assessments for atomic-molecular theory learning progression, 176-178 statutory requirement, 2 supporting science learning, 16, 35, 151 Atomic-molecular theory of matter assessment items, 176-178 conceptual change in understanding, 43, 45-56 core concepts in, 72, 76, 128 design of learning progression, 64-65, 151 language of science in, 65 learning progressions, 43, 44, 45-54, 59, 66-69, 72-75, 84-85 Molecules in Motion activity (grade 7), 45-54 multidisciplinary nature of, 60, 84 Mystery Box activity (grades K-2), 61, 65, 66-69 Nature of Gases activity (grades 6-8), 79-83, 168 Properties of Air activity (grades 3-5), 72-75 Autism, 95 B Behavior of students, 1, 23, 31, 95-96 Benchmarks for Science Literacy, 18, 62-63, 153 Biodiversity activity, 128, 151 case study, 22-27 ecosystem balance, 128-129 modeling species variability, 119-124 proficiency strands, 28-34 Biodiversity in a City Schoolyard, 22-27, 112, 119-124 Biology atomic-molecular theory and, 60 conceptual change in, 42, 43 curriculum tools, 114, 116, 119-124, 169 growth representation, 114-124 naïve understanding of, 28-29, 38, 42 reasoning skills of young children, 39 Struggle for Survival unit, 130-131 Biology Guided Inquiry Learning Environment (BGuiLE), 130, 132-133

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Ready, Set, Science!: Putting Research to Work in K-8 Science Classrooms C Case studies. See also Classroom investigations questions for practitioners, 171-175 Categorization. See also Classification assessment task, 176 of data, 112 skills of young children, 25, 26, 29, 39, 69 Catron, Susan, 167 Cell theory, 59 Chèche Konnen research program, 101 Chemistry, 38, 60, 76. See also Atomic-molecular theory of matter Classification biological, 23, 26-27, 30 models, 23 of objects, 69, 70, 176 Classroom investigations Biodiversity in a City Schoolyard, 22-27, 112, 119-124 biological growth, 110-111, 114-124 constructing and defending explanations, 19, 95-96, 132-135 creating meaningful problems, 127-129 cultural considerations in, 74, 104-106 empirical, 8, 9-13, 69, 70 follow-up and extension activities, 1, 10, 31, 70-71 graphing, 11, 112 “just in time” approach, 129-130, 131 lever and fulcrum, 128 mass and density, 137-140 measurement activities, 8, 9-13, 69, 70, 72-75, 112 metacognition, 142-146 Molecules in Motion, 45-54 Mystery Box, 66-71 Nature of Gases (grades 6-8), 79-83 norms for discussion, 95-96 practical or applied problems, 128 Properties of Air, 72-75 representing data, 23, 110-111, 114-124 scripting roles in, 137-140 sequencing instruction for, 129-131 Struggle for Survival, 130-131, 132 theoretical problems, 128 weighing and balancing activities, 70, 73-74, 104-105, 112 Classroom norms for discussion, 11-12, 15, 95-96 for presenting arguments, 21, 89, 92, 95-96, 136, 165-166 for scientific practice, 14, 15, 136 Cognitive skills children’s capabilities, 6-8, 15, 28-29, 37-41, 149, 155-156 linguistic abilities, 97-98 misconceptions about, 8, 155-156 Communication of ideas. See also Argument; Representation; Talk cultural differences, 4, 97-100 importance, 87 public speaking, 101 Conceptual change in knowledge structure, 41, 147 in levels of explanation, 44, 50-54, 76-77 in Molecules in Motion, 45-56 in networks of concepts, 42-43, 46-50, 55 in preexisting concepts, 42, 43-44, 45, 46-47, 55, 67 in representations, 114-118 teaching for, 137 types, 42-43 Constant units, 10, 12, 111 Content. See Core concepts; Curriculum content; Proficiency strands Core concepts. See also Conceptual change effectiveness of, 78 examples, 59, 128 implementation over time, 60-61, 63-65, 85, 130-131, 165 importance, 57, 84-85 intermediate ideas, 61, 64 interrelatedness, 57, 59-60 in learning progressions, 55-56, 59, 60, 63-65, 72-73, 76, 84-85, 151 research needs, 63 standards and benchmarks and, 61, 62-63 support system for, 61 young children’s understanding of, 12 Cultural, linguistic, and experiential considerations, 4. See also English language learners appreciating, 97-100 in argument and talk, 97-100

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Ready, Set, Science!: Putting Research to Work in K-8 Science Classrooms inclusiveness strategies, 10, 23-27, 66-67, 100-106 professional development opportunities, 160-161 Curriculum content, 57. See also Core concepts AAAS themes, 59 breadth and depth of, 62, 85, 150 “final form science,” 132 inquiry-based, 34 international comparisons, 62, 161 national standards and benchmarks, 3, 62-63 organizational structure, 59-60, 150 planning and development, 152, 162-163 processes linked to, 17-19; see also Proficiency strands Curriculum specialists, 22, 35. See also Science specialists D Data. See also Scientific evidence analysis, 4, 8, 11, 69, 130 collection, 4, 5, 8, 29-30, 32-33, 112, 130 comparison, 13 defined, 5 distribution of, 119-124 interpreting, 113, 115-116, 117 intervals in, 119-124 from measurement, 8, 10, 11, 115 quality and reliability, 30, 32, 33, 115 querying existing data sets, 112 representation, 4, 8, 11, 111-113, 119-124 sharing, 11, 25, 31-32, 101, 138 statistical measures, 113 structuring, 112 typical values, 119-124 understanding construction of, 111-112 Davis Foundation, 167 Density, 42, 57, 76, 137-140 Discussion, 6. See also Argument; Talk brainstorming, 71 building environment for, 107, 165 claim-evidence-reasoning framework, 135-137 cross-talk, 30, 31, 33 cultural diversity and, 9, 10, 94, 95, 97-103 framing questions, 94, 101 importance, 40, 78, 106-107 inclusiveness strategies, 74-75, 100-103 norm setting for, 11, 15, 46-47, 69, 77-78, 95-96, 97, 100, 165 piggybacking questions, 100-101 position-driven, 30, 31, 40, 93-94, 141 promoting, 52, 138-139, 141 rules of participation, 100-101, 135-137 shared inquiry, 94 small-group, 47, 91, 95, 98 teacher’s role, 94, 95, 165 young children’s abilities, 40 whole-group, 24, 25, 31, 32, 33-34, 68-69, 71, 72-75, 93, 138-139 Domains of science, 4, 38-41 E Earthquakes, 5 Education system. See Science education system design Electromagnetism, 4, 57 English language learners, 9, 10, 23-24, 26, 29, 74-75, 93, 85, 103, 104-106, 160-161 Estimation, 13 Evidence. See Scientific evidence Evolutionary theory, 19, 23, 52, 57, 59, 128, 130-131 F Facts, 5. See also Scientific evidence Forces balanced and unbalanced, 79-93 kinetic, 145, 146 Foundational knowledge. See also Core concepts building student motivation on, 130-131 common elements of, 38-41 conceptual understanding, 42 domain-specific reasoning, 38-39 misconceptions in, 40, 43-44, 46-47 of modeling, 39-40 naïve knowledge of science, 38-39, 46 proficiency strands in, 40 self-correction, 44 G Galapagos Islands, 130-131 Gases, 45-54, 76, 79-83 Geology, 60

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Ready, Set, Science!: Putting Research to Work in K-8 Science Classrooms Goldenada, Marianne, 151-153 Grades K-2 atomic-molecular theory (Mystery Box), 61, 65, 66-69, 176-177 biodiversity investigation, 22-27 cognitive capabilities of children, 6-8 growth investigation, 115 measurement classes, 8, 9-10 representations, 114, 115 Grades 3-5 atomic-molecular theory, 72-75, 177-178 balance experiment, 104-105 biodiversity investigation, 22-27 growth investigation, 116-117 representations, 110, 114, 117, 118, 119-124 Grades 6-8 atomic-molecular theory, 45-54, 76-83, 178 IQWST units, 132-133 state assessments, 1 shifts in understanding, 142-145 Graphing data, 11, 32, 33, 72, 110-111, 112, 114, 115, 118 Gravity, 56, 75, 145 H Haitian Creole students, 101, 104-106 Hypotheses and hypothesizing, 4, 5, 69 I Ideal gas law, 79-83 Individualized education plans, 95 Induction, 39 Infants, reasoning skills, 39 Inquiry, 34 Inquiry and the National Science Education Standards, 153 Instructional practices approaches and strategies, 9-10, 41, 52 conceptual change, 41, 137 constructing and defending explanations, 47-48, 132-135, 137 creating meaningful problems, 127-129, 156-157 inclusiveness strategies, 10, 23-27, 66-67, 100-106 inquiry, 34, 154, 161 instructional congruence, 100 misconceptions as stepping stones, 7, 43-44 motivating students, 26, 128-129, 130-131 proficiency strands applied in, 28-32, 34-35, 45-56 reciprocal approach, 136 scaffolding, 129 scripting student roles, 11-12, 100, 135-145 sequencing instruction, 129-131 standards based, 161 supervision of, 35 Investigating and Questioning Our World through Science and Technology (IQWST), 132-133 Investigations. See Classroom investigations Investigators Club, 79-83, 167, 168 Iteration, 12 K Kamehameha Early Education Project, 98 Kindergarten. See Grades K-2 L Language of science, 4-6, 61, 65, 88, 97, 168 Learning progressions assessments for, 176-178 in atomic-molecular theory, 45-54, 64-65, 66-69, 72-78, 176-178 benefits, 63-64 from core concepts, 26, 60, 63-65, 76, 84-85, 151 development, 84-85 effectiveness, 85 implementation, 84-85 importance, 14, 84-85 macro-level processes linked to micro-level phenomena, 65, 76-77, 78 in modeling, 114-118 over multiple years, 14-15, 56-57, 63-65, 150 from prior knowledge, 7, 8, 39-40, 55-56, 63, 77 proficiency strands in, 64 short-term extensions, 70-71, 85 Lee, Okhee, 100 Lehrer, Richard, 114, 118, 167 M Mass, 75, 137-140, 168 Mathematics, 8, 12, 23, 26, 40, 110-111

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Ready, Set, Science!: Putting Research to Work in K-8 Science Classrooms Matter, phases, 42. See also Atomic-molecular theory of matter Means, 113, 119 Measurement, 5 appropriate units, 12, 111 boundary-filling conception, 111 conventions, 12 error, 26, 113 fractional units, 72 identical units, 12 iteration, 12 key principles, 12 science classes, 8, 9-13, 25, 72-75 standard methods, 9, 12, 70, 115 theory, 111 Memorization of facts, 19, 46, 65, 72 Michigan State University, 158 Modeling Nature Project, 167 Models/modeling, 4, 5, 6 accuracy of representation, 110, 113-114 advantages and limitations, 80 Air Puppies model of ideal gas law, 79-83, 109, 110 Archimedes software, 137 data, 111-113 diagrams, 79-83, 109, 110, 113, 114 forms of, 109-110 foundational knowledge, 39-40 graphs, 11, 32, 33, 72, 110-111, 112, 114, 115, 119-124 intervals in data, 119-124 and learning progressions, 40, 77, 114-118 light motion, 129 maps, 25-26, 33, 114 mathematical, 23, 40 metacognitive understanding, 14, 78, 88, 113, 114, 129, 130, 142-146 Modeling with Dots software, 137, 138 pretend play as, 39 proficiency strands in, 125 scale models, 113-114 shifts in understanding, 114-118 typical values, 119-124 Molecules in Motion, 45-54 Mystery Box, 66-71 N National Science Education Standards, 18, 19, 62-63, 153 National Science Foundation, 84, 150, 158, 160-161 National Science Teachers Association, 159 Natural selection, 19, 130-131 Nature of Gases (grades 6-8), 79-83 Newtonian mechanics, 4, 59 No Child Left Behind Act, 2 Norms. See Classroom norms Northwestern University, 130-131 O Observation, 5, 69, 72-75, 98, 112 P Pan balance, 70, 73-74, 112 Parental roles in science education, 7 Pattern recognition, 28-29, 116-117, 118 Physics atomic-molecular theory, 60 naïve knowledge and reasoning skills, 38, 39 network of knowledge, 42-43 PI-CRUST (Promoting Inquiry Communities for the Reform of Urban Science Teaching), 158-159 Plant growth, 110-111 Plate tectonics, 5 Preschoolers modeling skills, 40, 113 reasoning skills, 39 Pressure of air, 45-54 Professional development, 16 for teaching diverse student populations, 160-161 informal networks, 35 opportunities for, 35, 157-162 proficiency strands in, 154, 163 resources for, 164 school-level, 151-153, 157 staff, 163-164 Proficiency strands. See also Learning progressions benchmarks and standards and, 19 case study, 21, 22-32 as content–process linkage, 17-19, 34-35, 129

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Ready, Set, Science!: Putting Research to Work in K-8 Science Classrooms generating evidence (strand 2), 8, 14, 19-20, 29-30, 32-33, 35, 111, 112, 117, 124, 127, 154 instruction approaches, 28-32, 150 interrelated nature of, 18, 32-34, 45, 149 in modeling data, 124 in naïve knowledge, 37-38, 40 participating productively (strand 4), 21, 31-32, 33-34, 124, 129, 154 reflecting on scientific knowledge (strand 3), 14, 20, 28, 30, 32, 33-34, 88, 92, 124, 125, 127, 128, 129, 130, 133, 136, 142-145, 146, 147, 154 standards and benchmarks and, 63 teacher learning patterns, 154 understanding explanations (strand 1), 19, 28-29, 33, 124, 142-145, 154 Properties of Air, 72-75 Psychology, naïve knowledge of, 38 Pythagorean theorem, 26, 32 R Ratios, 53, 76, 113, 117 Reasoning skills, 6, 7, 9-10 deductive, 69 domain specific, 38-39 inference, 68, 75 mathematical, 105 Representation, 6. See also Argument; Models/modeling; Talk biodiversity activity, 119-124 coordinate systems, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 124 data, 111-113, 119-124 development of, 118, 119-124 grades K-2, 11, 115-116 grades 3-5, 110, 114, 117, 118, 119-124 importance, 87, 109, 125-126 mathematical, 8, 12, 23, 104, 110-111, 114 shifts in understanding, 33, 117-118 S-shaped logistic curve, 116, 118 as thinking tools, 77, 109, 125-126 Reproducible results, 10 S Schauble, Leona, 114, 118, 167 Science education system design. See also Teachers administrators, 16, 162-163 assessment, 16, 57, 151 building the system, 15-16, 61, 107, 162-163 change initiatives, 150 curriculum development, 57, 150, 152-153, 164 instructional practices, 150 knowledge about learning and, 150-151 professional development, 16, 61, 71, 151, 152-153, 163-164 proficiency strands and, 35 science specialists, 161-162 standards and, 150, 161 Science learning. See also Learning progressions; Proficiency strands beliefs about young children, 155-156 framework for, 17-18, 150 Science specialists, 161-162, 164 Scientific claims, 5, 10, 14 Scientific evidence, 4. See also Data defined, 5 empirical, 69 generating, 4, 12-13, 14, 19-20, 29-30 instruction approach, 29-30 negative, 68 observational, 5, 69, 72-75 presenting, 14 reflecting on, 33 Scientific knowledge concept-based, 41; see also Conceptual change construction of, 80 “doing” science and, 18, 20, 46, 127, 132 domains, 38-41, 45 fact learning, 41, 46, 50-51, 55 importance, 2 instruction approach, 30, 41 misconceptions, 43-44, 46-47 reflecting on, 2, 20, 30, 142-146 structure of, 41 Scientific methods, 3, 4, 15 Scientific practice classroom norms, 14, 69 collective decisionmaking, 6, 8, 9-10, 11-13, 14 concepts integrated with, 62-63, 72-75 effective classrooms, 6, 14, 135-136 evidence and, 19 inquiry component, 34

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Ready, Set, Science!: Putting Research to Work in K-8 Science Classrooms instruction approach, 9-13, 31-32, 34-35 norms for, 14, 15, 21 productive participation, 6, 21, 31-32 proficiency strands and, 18, 19-20, 31-32, 62 “science as practice” perspective, 6, 34-35 social context, 21, 34, 132, 137 by young children, 8, 9-14, 33-34 Scientific understanding. See also Scientific knowledge building on existing knowledge, 7, 8, 10, 14-15, 26, 32, 56-57, 60-61, 152 children’s capacity for, 6-8, 28-29, 37-41, 149 contexts of meaning, 41; see also Conceptual change demonstrating proficiency, 19 instruction approach, 28-29, 45-54 metacognitive, 78, 142-146 naïve knowledge, 38-41 nonschool influences, 7 self-correction, 44 shifts in, 6, 20, 29, 30, 76, 117-118, 142-145 Scientists contributions, 2 intellectual practices, 138 real-world practices, 4, 6, 25, 136 as a social network, 2, 4, 132 stereotype, 3 students as, 6, 15 women and minorities, 4 Selecting Instructional Materials, 153 Sohmer, Richard, 79-83, 167 Solar system models, 113-114 Solubility, 57 Sound unit, 159 Spencer Foundation, 167, 168 Standards and benchmarks, 3, 19, 151 limitations of, 62-63 recommended revisions, 150 State assessments, 1, 22 State standards and curriculum frameworks, 3, 151 Statistical measures, 113 Struggle for Survival, 130-131, 132 System. See Science education system design T Talk, academically productive. See also Argument; Discussion encouraging, 89-92 equitable participation, 102, 103 exploratory (first-draft thinking), 102-103, 165 importance, 2, 91-92, 179-180 I-R-E sequence, 89-90, 107 learning through, 31-32, 88-89 moves, 15, 90-91 partner talk, 47-48, 91 and proficiency strands, 90 reviewing prior knowledge, 90 student presentations, 91 teacher initiated questions, 9, 11, 50, 53, 90, 105 thinking or wait time, 49, 52, 73-74, 90, 91, 101-102 turn-taking format, 66-67, 74, 89-90, 102, 104-105 Teachers. See also Professional development folk view of science, 154 implementing changes, 164-166 informal networks, 35 knowledge of science, 4, 8, 27-28, 57, 61, 71, 153-155 as learners, 23, 27, 151-153 negative judgments of cultural differences, 99-100, 166 opportunities to learn, 23, 35, 151, 157-162 pedagogical considerations, 71, 94, 107, 147, 156-157, 168 peer and administrative support, 151-153, 157 supporting proficiency strands, 35 understanding how students learn, 15, 84, 155-156, 157 Teaching science well. See also Instructional practices building on existing knowledge, 7, 8, 10, 14-15 effective science classrooms, 6, 87 following up on experiments, 1 importance, 2-3, 166 knowledge of subject matter and, 8, 57 language and, 88 next steps for practitioners, 164-166 questions for practitioners, 171-175 representation of data, 125-126 scientific terminology, 4-6 standards and benchmarks, 3, 151 state testing and, 1 time constraints and, 1, 45-46

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Ready, Set, Science!: Putting Research to Work in K-8 Science Classrooms Temperature, 44, 57, 76 Theories/theorizing, 136 advanced, 77 creating meaningful problems, 128 defined, 4-5, 88 generating scientific evidence, 19, 25-26, 67, 74-75 naïve, 37, 44, 167 position driven discussions, 73-75, 93-94, 139-140, 141 Thermodynamics, 4, 57, 82 Thinking critically introspection, 144 science and, 2 understanding students’ abilities, 15, 142-145 Third International Mathematics and Science Study, 62 Tiling, 12, 111 Tobacco hornworm growth, 117, 118 Trash and recycling unit, 159-160 U Understanding science. See Scientific understanding Units of measure, 12 University of Wisconsin–Madison, 169 V Vanderbilt University, 167 Volume, 70, 72 W Water displacement cup, 70 Weight and weighing experiments, 42, 57, 70, 72-75, 113, 168 Wellesley College, 167 Williams, Paul, 169 Windshitl, Mark, 154 Wisconsin Fast Plants, 114, 116, 119-124, 169 Writing and publishing research, 83, 138 Y Yup’ik, 98 Z Zero point, 12