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Nanophotonics Accessibility and Applicability
NANOPHOTONICS ACCESSIBILITY AND APPLICABILITY
Committee on Nanophotonics Accessibility and Applicability
Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
Washington, D.C.
www.nap.edu
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Nanophotonics Accessibility and Applicability
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
500 Fifth Street, N.W. Washington, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
This is a report of work supported by Contract HHM40205D0011 between the Defense Intelligence Agency and the National Academy of Sciences. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the view of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-10722-8
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-10722-9
Limited copies are available from
Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences
National Research Council
500 Fifth Street, N.W.
Washington, DC 20001
(202) 334-3111
Additional copies are available from
The National Academies Press
500 Fifth Street, N.W., Lockbox 285 Washington, DC 20001 (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area) Internet: http://www.nap.edu
Copyright 2008 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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Nanophotonics Accessibility and Applicability
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
Advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering, and Medicine
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.
www.national-academies.org
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Nanophotonics Accessibility and Applicability
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Nanophotonics Accessibility and Applicability
COMMITTEE ON NANOPHOTONICS ACCESSIBILITY AND APPLICABILITY
ANTOINETTE TAYLOR, Chair,
Los Alamos National Laboratory
ANTHONY DeMARIA (NAS1, NAE2), Vice Chair,
Coherent-DEOS, Inc.
BRADLEY G. BOONE,
Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory
STEVEN R.J. BRUECK,
University of New Mexico
NANCY (NAOMI) HALAS,
Rice University
HENDRIK F. HAMANN,
IBM T.J. Watson Research Center
EVELYN HU (NAE),
University of California at Santa Barbara
PETER PALFFY-MUHORAY,
Kent State University
STANLEY ROGERS,
Air Force Research Laboratory
JERRY A. SIMMONS,
Sandia National Laboratories
EDWIN THOMAS,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
ELI YABLONOVITCH (NAS, NAE),
University of California at Los Angeles
Staff
MICHAEL A. CLARKE, Lead Board Director
DANIEL E.J. TALMAGE, JR., Study Director
EMILY ANN MEYER, Program Officer
CARTER W. FORD, Associate Program Officer
DETRA BODRICK-SHORTER, Administrative Coordinator (as of January 2007)
ENITA A.WILLIAMS, Research Associate (as of April 2007)
LINDSAY D. MILLARD, Research Associate (summer 2006)
URRIKKA B. WOODS, Program Associate (as of April 2007)
LaSHAWN SIDBURY, Program Associate (through March 2007)
DIONNA ALI,
Anderson Commonwealth Intern
1
NAS, member of the National Academy of Sciences.
2
NAE, member of the National Academy of Engineering.
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Nanophotonics Accessibility and Applicability
Preface
The issues identified in the statement of task for this study1 are part of a very broad and important set of issues for appropriate agencies of the intelligence community, the Department of Defense (DOD) research and development community, and other government entities. In addressing the statement of task, the National Research Council’s (NRC’s) Committee on Nanophotonics Accessibility and Applicability studied both the threats and the opportunities posed by emerging applications of nanophotonics. In this report, the committee presents recommendations regarding priorities for future action by the intelligence community and the DOD in the field of nanophotonics.
We wish to express our appreciation to the members of the committee for their contributions to the preparation of this report. The committee is also grateful to the staff of the Defense Intelligence Agency for its continuous sponsorship, and it is grateful for the active participation of the intelligence community throughout the study. The committee greatly appreciates the support and assistance of NRC staff members Michael Clarke, Daniel Talmage, Jr., Emily Ann Meyer, Carter Ford, Detra Bodrick-Shorter, Enita Williams, Lindsay Millard, Urrikka Woods, LaShawn Sidbury, and Dionna Ali in the production of this report.
Antoinette Taylor, Chair
Anthony DeMaria, Vice Chair
Committee on Nanophotonics Accessibility and Applicability
1
The statement of task appears in Box 1-1 in Chapter 1.
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Nanophotonics Accessibility and Applicability
Acknowledgment of Reviewers
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council’s (NRC’s) Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of this report:
Dan Gammon, U.S. Naval Research Laboratory,
Sharon Glotzer, University of Michigan,
Joseph Goodman (NAE), Stanford University,
Erich Ippen (NAS, NAE), Massachusetts Institute of Technology,
Anthony Johnson, University of Maryland, Baltimore County,
Terry Lowe, Los Alamos National Laboratory,
Venkatesh Narayanamurti, Harvard University,
John Rogers, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
Alton D. Romig, Jr. (NAE), Sandia National Laboratories, and
Costas Soukoulis, Iowa State University and Ames Laboratory.
Although the reviewers listed above have provided many constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the conclusions or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was overseen by Elsa Garmire (NAE), Dartmouth University. Appointed by the NRC, she was responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.
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Nanophotonics Accessibility and Applicability
Contents
SUMMARY
1
1
INTRODUCTION
9
Scope of the Study,
9
Background,
10
Methodology,
15
Anticipating Threats and Projecting Threat Levels,
15
Matrix of Critical Technologies,
16
Structure of the Report,
18
References,
18
2
NANOSCALE PHENOMENA UNDERPINNING NANOPHOTONICS
19
Spatial Modulation at Fractions of a Wavelength—Photonic Crystals,
19
Introduction,
19
Photonic Bandgap,
20
Defects in Photonic Crystals: Localization of Light,
21
The Control of Dispersion and the Slowing and Storage of Light,
21
High-Efficiency Optical Sources,
22
Photonic Crystal Waveguides and Fibers,
23
Feasibility and Impact,
24
International Perspective,
24
Metamaterials—Spatial Index Modulation at a Scale Less Than a Wavelength,
26
Background,
26
Status,
26
Spatial Index Modulation,
27
Issues,
28
Impact,
29
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Nanophotonics Accessibility and Applicability
Plasmonics,
29
Localized Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensing,
32
Surface-Enhanced Spectroscopy,
35
Techniques for Imaging and Spectroscopy of Plasmonic Structures,
37
Extraordinary Transmission, Subwavelength Holes,
42
Plasmonic Waveguides and Other Electromagnetic Transport Geometries,
45
Plasmon-Based Active Devices,
50
Plasmon-Enhanced Devices,
53
Plasmonics in Biotechnology and Biomedicine,
55
Emerging Topics of Phonon Polaritons and Terahertz Waveguides,
58
Phonon Polaritons,
58
Terahertz Plasmonic Waveguides,
58
Reduced Dimensionality and Quantum Confinement in Nanophotonics,
60
Introduction and Background,
60
New Devices: Emitters,
61
New Devices: Detectors and Modulators,
66
New Class of Optoelectronic Devices Based on Intraband Transitions,
70
References,
73
3
ENABLING TECHNOLOGIES
83
Realizing Hierarchical Synthesis, Growth, and Fabrication Structures at the Nanoscale,
83
Introduction,
83
Synthesis,
84
Layered-Nanoparticle Fabrication Techniques,
86
Nanorods and Nanowires,
87
Organic Materials,
88
Self-Assembled Responsive Materials,
94
Colloidal Synthesis,
94
Epitaxial Growth,
94
Molecular-Beam Epitaxy,
95
Metal-Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition,
95
Growth Challenges,
96
International Semiconductor Crystal Growth Expertise,
96
Fabrication,
96
Planar Processing Approaches,
96
Optical Lithography,
97
Nanoimprinting,
99
Stacking Membrane Structures,
99
Photonic Crystal Fibers,
100
Directed Self-Assembly and Directed Epitaxial Growth,
102
Polymerization-Induced Phase Separation,
102
Nanoscale Crystal Growth (Nanowires),
102
Findings,
104
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Modeling and Simulation in Nanophotonics,
104
Finite Element Method,
105
Finite-Difference Time-Domain Method,
105
Boundary Element Method,
106
Other Numerical Methods,
107
Analytic Methods,
107
Characterization Techniques for Nanophotonics,
108
Advanced Microscopies,
108
Scanning Probe Microscopy,
109
Scanning Electron Microscopy,
110
Transmission Electron Microscopy,
112
Nanophotonics Devices,
112
Wavelength-Scale Devices,
112
Deep Subwavelength-Scale Nano-Optical Devices,
115
Packaging and Integration,
115
Technology Environment,
117
Packaging and Integration Technologies,
120
Monolithic Integration: Silicon Photonics,
122
Waveguides and Passives,
122
Modulators,
123
Detectors,
123
Light Sources or Gain Elements,
123
Heterogeneous Integration: Silicon Carrier, Three-Dimensional Silicon,
124
Overaching Recommendation,
124
References,
125
4
POTENTIAL MILITARY APPLICATIONS OF NANOPHOTONICS
131
Introduction,
131
Reporting Process and Methodology,
132
Potential Enabling Technologies and Applications,
134
Technologies in Their Infancy,
163
Quantum Computation and Nanophotonics,
163
Terahertz Spectroscopy and Nanophotonics,
165
Recommendation,
166
References,
166
5
FOREIGN INVESTMENT CAPABILITIES
168
International Nanophotonics,
168
Asia,
168
Europe,
170
Nanophotonics and Global Commercial Demand,
171
Recommendation,
173
References,
173
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Nanophotonics Accessibility and Applicability
6
OVERALL COMMENTS
175
The Relevance of Nanophotonics to Strategic and Critical Military Technologies,
175
Major Strategic and Critical Military Capabilities and the Probabilities of Nanotechnologies Impacting Them,
175
Conclusions,
178
Accessibility,
178
Applications,
179
Foreign Capabilities and Investments,
179
Findings and Recommendations,
180
Reference,
181
APPENDIXES
A Biographical Sketches of Committee Members
185
B Presentations to the Committee
190
C Previous Studies
193
D Selected Research Groups in Plasmonics
203
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Acronyms and Abbreviations
ADDL amyloid derived diffusible ligand
AFM atomic force microscopy
Ag silver
Al aluminum
APTES aminopropyltriethoxysilane
AR antireflection
Au gold
BB blackbody
BCP block copolymers
BEM boundary element method
BOX buried oxide
CDEW composite diffracted evanescent wave
CdSe cadmium selenide
CdTe cadmium telluride
CHEM chemical enhancement mechanism
CMOS complementary metal oxide semiconductor
CMP chip multiprocessor
CNT carbon nanotube
CO2 carbon dioxide
COTS commercial off-the-shelf
CPP channel plasmon polariton
CPU central processing unit
CVD chemical vapor deposition
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DARPA Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency
DDR&E Director, Defense Research and Engineering
DFARS Defense Federal Acquisition Regulations Supplement
DFB distributed feedback lasers
DIA Defense Intelligence Agency
DIBCS Defense Industrial Base Capabilities Studies
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid
DOD Department of Defense
EAM electro absorption modulators
EM electromagnetic
EU European Union
FDTD finite-difference time-domain
FEM finite element method
FET field effect transistor
FMM fast multipole method
FOM figure of merit
FPA focal plane array
Ga gallium
GaAs gallium arsenide
GaN gallium nitride
Ge germanium
HAMR heat-assisted magnetic recording
HD hard disk
HDD hard disk drive
HgCdTe mercury cadmium telluride
ICP inductively coupled plasma
IEEE Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
IL interferometric lithography
IMI insulator-metal-insulator
InAs indium arsenide
InGaN indium gallium nitride
IR infrared
IT information technology
ITRS International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors
ITWC intelligence technology warning community
JLIST Joint Service Lightweight Integrated Suit Technology
JTEC Japan Technology Evaluation Center
KAIST Korean Advanced Institute of Science and Technology
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L slab thickness
LED light-emitting diode
LSPR localized surface plasmon resonance
LWIR long-wave infrared
MBE molecular-beam epitaxy
MEMS microelectromechanical system
MIM metal-insulator-metal
MIT Massachusetts Institute of Technology
MM multimode
MOCVD metal-organic chemical vapor deposition
MOVPE metal-organic vapor-phase epitaxy
MWIR mid-wave infrared
NH4OH ammonium hydroxide
NIR near infrared
NRC National Research Council
NSF National Science Foundation
NSL nanosphere lithography
NSOM near-field scanning optical microscope
OLED organic light-emitting diode
PDMS polydimethylsiloxane
PEEM photoelectron emission microscopy
PIC photonic-integrated circuit
PIPS polymerization-induced phase separation
PSTM photon scanning tunneling microscopy
PV photovoltaic
QCL quantum cascade laser
QCSE quantum confined stark effect
QD quantum dot
QDIP quantum dot infrared photodetector
QKD quantum key distribution
QW quantum well
QWI quantum well intermixing
QWIP quantum well infrared photodetector
R&D research and development
RC resonant-cavity
RCWA rigorous coupled wave analysis
RIE reactive ion etching
S&T science and technology
SEF surface-enhanced fluorescence
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SEIRA surface-enhanced infrared absorption spectroscopy
SEM scanning electron microscope
SEROA surface-enhanced Raman optical activity
SERS surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy
SES surface-enhanced spectroscopy
Si silicon
SiC silicon carbide
SiN silicon nitride
SiP system-in-package
SLS strained layer superlattices
SM single mode
SMS spatial modulation spectroscopy
SoC system-on-chip
SOI silicon on insulator
SoP system on a package
SP surface plasmon
SPASER surface-plasmon amplification by stimulated emission of radiation
SPM scanning probe microscopy
SPP surface plasmon propogation
SPR surface plasmon resonance
s-SNOM scattering-scanning near-field optical microscopy
STM scanning tunneling microscope
TAR thermally assisted recording
TEM transmission electron microscope
TEOS tetraethylorthosilicate
TERS tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy
THPC tetrakis(hydroxymethyl)phosphonium chloride
TIGER (standing committee on) Technology Insight—Gauge, Evaluate and Review
TiO2 titanium dioxide
TPV thermophotovoltaic
UAV unmanned aerial vehicle
UV ultraviolet
VLS vapor-liquid-solid
VLWIR very long wave infrared
WDM wavelength division multiplexing
WR waveguide ring
ZnS zinc sulfide
