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Earth Observations from Space: The First 50 Years of Scientific Achievements
EARTH OBSERVATIONS FROM SPACE
THE FIRST 50 YEARS OF SCIENTIFIC ACHIEVEMENTS
Committee on Scientific Accomplishments of Earth Observations from Space
Board on Atmospheric Sciences and Climate
Division on Earth and Life Studies
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
Washington, D.C.
www.nap.edu
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Earth Observations from Space: The First 50 Years of Scientific Achievements
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES PRESS
500 FIFTH STREET, N.W. WASHINGTON, DC 20001
NOTICE: The project that is the subject of this report was approved by the Governing Board of the National Research Council, whose members are drawn from the councils of the National Academy of Sciences, the National Academy of Engineering, and the Institute of Medicine. The members of the committee responsible for the report were chosen for their special competences and with regard for appropriate balance.
Support for this project was provided by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under Contract No. NNG06GF62G. Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the author(s) and do not necessarily reflect the views of the organizations or agencies that provided support for the project.
International Standard Book Number-13: 978-0-309-11095-2
International Standard Book Number-10: 0-309-11095-5
Additional copies of this report are available from the
National Academies Press,
500 Fifth Street, N.W., Lockbox 285, Washington, DC 20055; (800) 624-6242 or (202) 334-3313 (in the Washington metropolitan area); Internet, http://www.nap.edu.
Cover design by Van Nguyen, National Academies Press.
Copyright 2008 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America
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Earth Observations from Space: The First 50 Years of Scientific Achievements
THE NATIONAL ACADEMIES
Advisers to the Nation on Science, Engineering, and Medicine
The National Academy of Sciences is a private, nonprofit, self-perpetuating society of distinguished scholars engaged in scientific and engineering research, dedicated to the furtherance of science and technology and to their use for the general welfare. Upon the authority of the charter granted to it by the Congress in 1863, the Academy has a mandate that requires it to advise the federal government on scientific and technical matters. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone is president of the National Academy of Sciences.
The National Academy of Engineering was established in 1964, under the charter of the National Academy of Sciences, as a parallel organization of outstanding engineers. It is autonomous in its administration and in the selection of its members, sharing with the National Academy of Sciences the responsibility for advising the federal government. The National Academy of Engineering also sponsors engineering programs aimed at meeting national needs, encourages education and research, and recognizes the superior achievements of engineers. Dr. Charles M. Vest is president of the National Academy of Engineering.
The Institute of Medicine was established in 1970 by the National Academy of Sciences to secure the services of eminent members of appropriate professions in the examination of policy matters pertaining to the health of the public. The Institute acts under the responsibility given to the National Academy of Sciences by its congressional charter to be an adviser to the federal government and, upon its own initiative, to identify issues of medical care, research, and education. Dr. Harvey V. Fineberg is president of the Institute of Medicine.
The National Research Council was organized by the National Academy of Sciences in 1916 to associate the broad community of science and technology with the Academy’s purposes of furthering knowledge and advising the federal government. Functioning in accordance with general policies determined by the Academy, the Council has become the principal operating agency of both the National Academy of Sciences and the National Academy of Engineering in providing services to the government, the public, and the scientific and engineering communities. The Council is administered jointly by both Academies and the Institute of Medicine. Dr. Ralph J. Cicerone and Dr. Charles M. Vest are chair and vice chair, respectively, of the National Research Council.
www.national-academies.org
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Earth Observations from Space: The First 50 Years of Scientific Achievements
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Earth Observations from Space: The First 50 Years of Scientific Achievements
COMMITTEE ON SCIENTIFIC ACCOMPLISHMENTS OF EARTH OBSERVATIONS FROM SPACE
JEAN BERNARD MINSTER (Chair),
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California
JANET W. CAMPBELL (Vice Chair),
University of New Hampshire, Durham
JEFF DOZIER,
University of California, Santa Barbara
JAMES R. FLEMING,
Colby College, Waterville, Maine
JOHN C. GILLE,
National Center for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado
DENNIS L. HARTMANN,
University of Washington, Seattle
KENNETH JEZEK,
The Ohio State University, Columbus
STANLEY Q. KIDDER,
Colorado State University, Fort Collins
NAVIN RAMANKUTTY,
McGill University, Montreal, Quebec
ANNE M. THOMPSON,
Pennsylvania State University, University Park
SUSAN L. USTIN,
University of California, Davis
JAMES A. YODER,
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, Massachusetts
NRC Staff
CLAUDIA MENGELT, Study Director
MARIA UHLE, Program Officer
LEAH PROBST, Research Associate
KATHERINE WELLER, Senior Program Assistant
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Earth Observations from Space: The First 50 Years of Scientific Achievements
BOARD ON ATMOSPHERIC SCIENCES AND CLIMATE
F. SHERWOOD ROWLAND (Chair),
University of California, Irvine
M. JOAN ALEXANDER,
NorthWest Research Associates, Boulder, Colorado
MICHAEL L. BENDER,
Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey
ROSINA M. BIERBAUM,
University of Michigan, Ann Arbor
CAROL ANNE CLAYSON,
Florida State University, Tallahassee
WALTER F. DABBERDT,
Vaisala, Inc., Boulder, Colorado
KERRY A. EMANUEL,
Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
DENNIS L. HARTMANN,
University of Washington, Seattle
PETER R. LEAVITT,
Weather Information, Inc., Newton, Massachusetts
VERNON R. MORRIS,
Howard University, Washington, D.C.
THOMAS H. VONDER HAAR,
Colorado State University/CIRA, Fort Collins
Ex Officio Member
ANTONIO J. BUSALACCHI, JR.,
University of Maryland, College Park
NRC Staff
CHRIS ELFRING, Director
IAN KRAUCUNAS, Program Officer
CURTIS H. MARSHALL, Program Officer
CLAUDIA MENGELT, Program Officer
ELIZABETH A. GALINIS, Research Associate
LEAH PROBST, Research Associate
ROB GREENWAY, Senior Program Assistant
KATHERINE WELLER, Senior Program Assistant
DIANE GUSTAFSON, Administrative Coordinator
SHUBHA BANSKOTA, Financial Associate
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Earth Observations from Space: The First 50 Years of Scientific Achievements
Preface
Over the past five decades, space-faring nations have developed impressive capabilities for observing Earth from satellite platforms. This has resulted in rapid advances in fundamental science and improved our ability to understand and predict the dynamics of Earth systems, to the great benefit of society. Global geophysical observations covering a wide range of disciplines have provided unprecedented insight into the physics of Earth systems. Exquisitely accurate space geodetic measurements have yielded a global reference system that is three orders of magnitude more accurate than that of a half-century ago. Today, our ability to forecast weather, climate, and natural hazards depends critically on satellite-based observations of the planet.
The Earth science community is currently engaged in major efforts to plan directions for future observations and research that depend on space-based platforms. One essential study—the first of its kind in the Earth sciences—is the recent “decadal survey” led by the National Academies: Earth Science and Applications from Space: National Imperatives for the Next Decade and Beyond (NRC 2007a). This is a forward-looking report that provides guidance to the U.S. government—particularly the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the U.S. Geological Survey, and the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration—about future priorities. It recommends a renewal of the national commitment to support ongoing observations from space in order to face scientific and societal challenges over the next decades and to understand and manage natural resources. To complement this decadal survey, NASA asked the National Academies to illustrate the value of a half-century of Earth observations from space. That is the topic of this report.
The committee addressed this task by meeting with expert scientists from various disciplines who offered their perspectives on crucial discoveries and scientific achievements enabled by satellite observations. Suggestions were also solicited from the Earth science community at large through various distribution lists, and a town hall meeting was organized through the American Geophysical Union to elicit comments and opinions. From this process emerged a long list of scientific accomplishments, each singularly convincing, unique, and sometimes amazing that could not have been achieved without orbital observations. From this list the committee chose some of the most compelling and illustrative examples to showcase the value of satellite observations and argue the central importance of sustaining the effort to develop and deploy these observational tools. The examples presented in this report capture the committee’s subjective view of the most important accomplishments, yet we believe that another committee’s short list would overlap considerably with the present selection. These accomplishments demonstrate clearly that the advent of satellite observations has revolutionized the Earth sciences.
Many individuals contributed essential information and helped in writing the examples of accomplishments (Chapters 3-11) and added to the committee members’ own expertise, and they are recognized in the Acknowledgments. I am also grateful to the committee members; they volunteered countless hours to this study. I would like particularly to acknowledge the dedication of Janet Campbell, the committee’s vice chair, who “stepped into the breach” more than once to keep our momentum.
Finally, I am most grateful to the National Research Council (NRC) staff—Study Director Claudia Mengelt; Research Associate Leah Probst, who managed the circulation of drafts and supporting documents via the Web and staffed all of our meetings; Maria Uhle, who pitched in during the busiest periods of the study; and Senior Program Assistant Katie Weller, who handled the logistics of all meetings, cheerfully managing the travel requirements of all participants. As is usual for NRC studies, the staff was a critical element in completing the study on time and on budget.
Bernard Minster, Chair
Committee on Scientific Accomplishments of Earth Observations from Space
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Earth Observations from Space: The First 50 Years of Scientific Achievements
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Earth Observations from Space: The First 50 Years of Scientific Achievements
Acknowledgments
Over the course of this study, the committee met five times to gather information and conduct deliberations. In the process, many members of the Earth science community were invited to provide input and contribute descriptions of scientific accomplishments. In addition, the community responded to a broad solicitation for input, which also helped shape the committee’s thinking. In particular, the committee wants to acknowledge the following individuals for providing invaluable information to this study:
Tad Anderson, University of Washington, Seattle
Rick Anthes, University Corporation for Atmospheric Research, Boulder, Colorado
Robert Bindschadler, National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Kenneth Casey, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
Yi Chao, NASA
Dudley Chelton, Oregon State University, Corvallis
James Coakley, Oregon State University, Corvallis
Peter Cornillon, University of Rhode Island, Narragansett
Diane Evans, NASA
Jonathan A. Foley, University of Wisconsin, Madison
Mark Friedl, Boston University, Massachusetts
Randy Friedl, NASA
Ralph Kahn, NASA
Jack Kaye, NASA
Dennis Lettenmaier, University of Washington, Seattle
Ulrike Lohmann, Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, Zurich, Switzerland
Stephen Lord, NOAA
Tom Loveland, U.S. Geological Survey
Michael Mishchenko, NASA
Lorraine Remer, NASA
Sassan Saatchi, NASA
Annemarie Schneider, University of California, Santa Barbara
Bill Smith, Hampton University, Virginia
Dave Smith, NASA
Omar Torres, NASA
Lucia Tsaoussi, NASA
Bruce Wielicki, NASA
Carl Wunsch, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
Charles Yentsch, Bigelow Laboratory for Ocean Sciences, West Boothbay Harbor, Maine
Howard Zebker, Stanford University, California
This report has been reviewed in draft form by individuals chosen for their diverse perspectives and technical expertise, in accordance with procedures approved by the National Research Council’s Report Review Committee. The purpose of this independent review is to provide candid and critical comments that will assist the institution in making its published report as sound as possible and to ensure that the report meets institutional standards for objectivity, evidence, and responsiveness to the study charge. The review comments and draft manuscript remain confidential to protect the integrity of the deliberative process. We wish to thank the following individuals for their review of this report:
Gregory Asner, Carnegie Institution, Stanford, California
Sheldon Drobot, University of Colorado, Boulder
Dara Entekabi, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
Inez Fung, University of California, Berkeley
Bradford Hager, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge
Charles Kolb, Aerodyne Research, Inc., Billerica, Massachusetts
Kuo-Nan Liou, University of California, Los Angeles
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Earth Observations from Space: The First 50 Years of Scientific Achievements
Anne Nolin, Oregon State University, Corvallis
David Siegel, University of California, Santa Barbara
Lynn Talley, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La Jolla, California
Byron Tapley, University of Texas, Austin
Thomas Vonder Haar, Colorado State University, Fort Collins
Although the reviewers listed above provided constructive comments and suggestions, they were not asked to endorse the report’s conclusions or recommendations, nor did they see the final draft of the report before its release. The review of this report was overseen by Elbert W. Friday, Jr., University of Oklahoma, Norman. Appointed by the National Research Council, he was responsible for making certain that an independent examination of this report was carried out in accordance with institutional procedures and that all review comments were carefully considered. Responsibility for the final content of this report rests entirely with the authoring committee and the institution.
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Earth Observations from Space: The First 50 Years of Scientific Achievements
Contents
SUMMARY
1
A Unique Vantage Point,
1
Fundamental Contributions to Science,
2
Societal Applications of Satellite Data,
4
Infrastructure Requirements to Advance Science,
6
Conclusions,
6
1
INTRODUCTION
8
The Study’s Approach,
8
2
EARTH OBSERVATIONS FROM SPACE: THE EARLY HISTORY
10
Early Satellites and Pioneers,
11
Instrument and Technology Development,
15
Conclusion,
16
3
WEATHER
18
Weather Imagery,
18
Atmospheric Properties,
21
Numerical Weather Prediction,
23
4
EARTH’S RADIATION BUDGET AND THE ROLE OF CLOUDS AND AEROSOLS IN THE CLIMATE SYSTEM
26
Earth’s Radiation Budget,
26
Global Distribution of Cloud Properties,
27
Aerosols from Natural Processes and Human Activities,
31
Indirect Effects of Aerosols,
31
Stratospheric Particles,
32
Global Climatologies of Aerosols,
35
5
ATMOSPHERIC COMPOSITION: OZONE DEPLETION AND GLOBAL POLLUTION
37
Understanding and Removing the Threat of Stratospheric Ozone Depletion,
38
Observing Stratospheric Dynamics,
38
Determining the Causes of Antarctic Ozone Depletion,
39
Ozone Depletion Over the Northern Hemisphere,
43
Tropospheric Ozone and Trace Gases,
44
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Earth Observations from Space: The First 50 Years of Scientific Achievements
6
HYDROLOGY
50
Precipitation Estimates from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission,
50
Seasonal Snow Cover,
51
Discovery of Ancient Buried River Channels,
54
Analysis of Groundwater from Gravity Data,
55
Use of Satellite-Derived Elevation Data in Hydrology,
55
7
CRYOSPHERE
58
Nonuniform and Dynamic Ice Streams in Antarctica,
58
Accelerating Ice Sheet Flow in Antarctica and Greenland,
59
Declining Arctic Summer Sea Ice,
60
Glacier Extent and Position of Equilibrium Line,
62
8
OCEAN DYNAMICS
64
The Ocean’s Role in Climate Change,
64
Prevalence of Dynamic Features,
66
Understanding Ocean Tides: New Solutions to an Old Scientific Question,
68
The Turbulent Ocean,
68
Ocean Wind Measurements Reveal Two-Way Ocean-Atmosphere Interaction,
71
9
ECOSYSTEMS AND THE CARBON CYCLE
73
Terrestrial Primary Productivity,
73
Marine Primary Productivity,
75
Global Marine and Terrestrial Primary Production,
78
The Ocean Carbon Cycle,
78
Long-Term Ecosystem Record Reveals Atmosphere-Biosphere Coupling,
79
Studying Plant Physiology from Space,
80
10
LAND-USE AND LAND-COVER CHANGE
84
Monitoring Agricultural Lands,
85
Estimating Tropical Deforestation,
86
Mapping Global Land Cover,
86
Mapping Global Fires,
86
Understanding Desertification,
91
11
SOLID EARTH
92
Geodesy,
92
Structure and Dynamics of Earth’s Deep Interior,
92
The Global Positioning System,
94
Plate Tectonics, Topography, Seismology, and Volcanology,
94
12
CONCLUSIONS
98
The Emergence of Integrated Earth System Science,
98
Integrated Global View of the Carbon Cycle and Climate System,
99
Maximizing the Return on Investment in Earth Observations from Space,
101
Opportunities for the Future of Earth Observations from Space,
105
REFERENCES
107
APPENDIXES
A Examples of Scientific Accomplishments and Relevant Satellite Missions
121
B Acronyms
123
C Biographical Sketches of Committee Members and Staff
126
