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Energy Futures and Urban Air Pollution: Challenges for China and the United States
Appendix C
Summary of PM Source-Apportionment Studies in China
Here we summarized the results from 11 typical studies. The following information was extracted from each publication: (1) sampling locations; (2) ambient sampling periods, frequencies, and durations; (3) source categories, source profiles, and methods of obtaining profiles; (4) chemical and physical properties quantified at source and receptor; (5) CMB solution and evaluation methods; (6) source contribution estimates. Since most of results don’t reconcile with source modeling and emissions inventories, the description is omitted. This information is summarized in Table C-1.
We can draw several conclusions from the comparison of the studies from Table C-1.
Geographic distribution. Most of the studies were conducted in cities in north China including Beijing (Zhang Y.H. et al., 2004; Zheng et al., 2005; Song et al., 2006a, 2006b), Xi’an (Zhang X.Y. et al., 2001), Jinan (Feng et al., 2004), Yantai (Xu et al., 2001), Xining (Wang, 2006), Yinchuan (Sang et al., 2005). Studies in south China include Hong Kong (Lee et al., 1999; Ho et al., 2006), Nanjing (Hang et al., 2000), Chongqing (Tao et al., 2006).
Study Objectives. Most of these studies were undertaken to improve the source identification and support decision making. These studies were informational rather than regulatory; there was a desire by decision makers to understand the relative contributions from different source types. The result of source apportionment study like Xi’an has been adapted by Xi’an municipal government (Zhang X.Y. et al., 2001). Residential coal has been replaced by natural gas, gasoline in taxi cars has also been replaced by natural gas, and open burning has been prohibited. Air quality in Xi’an has been improved largely.
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Ambient Measurements. All the studies used the chemical measurements of elements (17-36 elements from Na to U). Studies in Beijing (Zhang Y.H. et al., 2004; Zheng et al., 2005; Song et al., 2006a, 2006b), Jinan (Feng et al., 2004), Hong Kong PM2.5 (Ho et al., 2006), and Chongqing (Tao et al., 2006) also used chemical measurements of water-soluble ions (chloride [Cl−], nitrate [NO3−], sulfate [SO42−], ammonium [NH4+], and sometimes sodium [Na+], potassium [K+], calcium [Ca2+]), and carbon (organic [OC] and elemental carbon [EC]). Studies in Xi’an (Zhang X.Y. et al., 2001), and Hong Kong PM10 (Lee et al., 1999) used the measurements of elements and ions.
Source Measurements and Profiles. No area-specific source profile measurements were taken in studies of Beijing (Zhang Y.H. et al., 2004; Song et al., 2006a, 2006b), Yantai (Xu et al., 2001), Xining (Wang W., 2006), and Hong Kong (Lee et al., 1999; Ho et al., 2006). Only dust aerosol or dustfall samples from source-dominated microenvironments were taken in studies of Beijing (Zheng et al., 2005), Xi’an (Zhang X.Y. et al., 2001), Jinan (Feng et al., 2004), Yinchuan (Sang et al., 2005), Nanjing (Hang et al., 2000), and Chongqing (Tao et al., 2006). Other profiles like diesel engine exhaust, gasoline-powered vehicle exhaust were taken from earlier tests in the study area or similar areas (Feng et al., 2004; Zheng et al., 2005).
Source Contribution Estimates. The major sources including coal combustion dust, fugitive dust (soil dust), and construction dust accounted for 58 percent at Xi’an (Zhang X.Y. et al., 2001), 77 percent in Jinan (Feng et al., 2004), 67 percent in Yantai (Xu et al., 2001), 79.4 percent in Xining (Wang, 2006), 84.7 in Nanjing (Hang et al., 2000) for TSP fraction. They accounted for 72 percent in Jinan (Feng et al., 2004), 80 percent in Yinchuan (Sang et al., 2005), only 6.1 percent in Hong Kong (Lee et al., 1999) for PM10 fraction. Their percentage is 37.8 percent in Beijing (Zhang Y.H. et al., 2004), and 6-30 percent in Hong Kong (Ho et al., 2006) for PM2.5 fraction. Coal is the dominant energy source and construction activities are serious in most of cities in north China. Strong wind and dry weather results in the large fugitive dust (soil dust) in TSP in these cities. These three sources are also dominant sources contributed to PM10 in cities in north China, but not in Hong Kong. Hong Kong is a developed city without intensive construction activities and coal utilization and coastal area with frequent precipitations, which lead to the small contribution from these three sources. In PM2.5 fraction, their contribution decreased because the increasing contribution from secondary sources and vehicular exhaust in Beijing and Hong Kong.
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Energy Futures and Urban Air Pollution: Challenges for China and the United States
TABLE C-1 Summary of PM Source Apportionment Studies Using CMB and Other Receptor Models in China< /tr>
Study, Location, Period, and Measurements
Source Apportionment Method
Findings
Northern China
Reference: Beijing PM2.5 study (Zhang Y.H. et al., 2004)
When: 24-h samples were acquired during April 25-30, 2000, August 18-25, 2000, October 30-November 4 and January 9-14, 2001.
Where: Three sites include Beijing Union University (BUU), Chinese Academy of Preventive Medicine (CAPM), and Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences (CRAES).
Ambient: Samples were acquired with a MOUDI-100 impactor, A-245 dichotomous sampler and a PM2.5 sampler and a self-developed sampler. The samples were analyzed for mass, 19 elements (by ICP-AES), ions (NO3−, SO42−, and NH4+ by IC), carbon (OC and EC by NIOSH), and organic compounds (including PAHs by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry).
Source: No area-specific source profile measurements were taken.
Solution: CMB
Average CMB-calculated source contribution to PM2.5 (in % mass):
Source Type
Annual
Coal combustion
16.4
Vehicle exhaust
5.6
Construction dust
3.3
Fugitive dust
18.1
Biomass burning
4.5
Secondary sulfate and nitrate
9.6
Organic matter
15.0
Unexplained
27.5
Average measured PM2.5 mass (μg m−3)
122
Number in Average
Not reported
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Energy Futures and Urban Air Pollution: Challenges for China and the United States
Study, Location, Period, and Measurements
Source Apportionment Method
Findings
Reference: Beijing PM2.5 study (Zheng et al., 2005; Song et al., 2006a, 2006b)
When: 24-h samples were acquired once every 6 days in January, April, July, and October in 2000.
Where: Five sites include Ming Tombs (OT), airport (NB), Beijing University (BJ), Dong Si EPB (XY), and Yong Le Dian (CH).
Ambient: Samples were acquired with Total Particle samplers and analyzed for mass, 19 elements (by XRF), ions (NO3−, SO42−, and NH4+ by IC), carbon (OC and EC by NIOSH), and organic compounds (including PAHs by Gas Chromatography/Mass Spectrometry).
Source: No area-specific source profile measurements were taken in PMF, APCA, and UNMIX studies (Song et al., 2006a, 2006b). Dust and coal emission profiles were composed and other profiles were taken from earlier tests in the study area or similar areas in CMB study (Zheng et al., 2005).
Solution: PCA/ APCA, UNMIX, PMF, and CMB
Average calculated source contribution to PM2.5 (in % mass):
Source Type
CMB
PMF
APCA
UNMIX
Secondary sulfates
16.7
16.0
Secondary nitrates
10.7
15.0
23.1
28.0
Secondary ammonium
6.4
Coal combustion
6.3
15.8
26.4
23.3
Biomass aerosols
8.3
10.1
Motor vehicles
6.5
5.5
5.9
10.7
Road dusta
12.3
7.0
7.1
8.3
Industry
4.7
6.5
10.9
Cigarette smoke
1.3
Vegetative detritus
1.0
Other organic matter
11.2
Unexplained
15.3
18.1
26.1
14.0
Average measuredmass (µg m−3) b
101
93
96
96
Number in average
100
90
90
90
a Averaged in January, July, and October as a different dust signature used during April in CMB.
b CMB: an average of the measured PM2.5 mass concentrations in 100 samples; PMF: the contributions of apportioned dust storms were subtracted from the CMB value (101 µg m−3); PCA/APCS and UNMIX: averages of 90 samples (excluding 10 dust storm samples).
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Energy Futures and Urban Air Pollution: Challenges for China and the United States
Reference: Xi'an TSP study (Zhang X.Y. et al., 2001)
When: 24-h samples were acquired from September 1996 to August 1997.
Where: Four sites include east, south, west and center sites. Ambient: Samples were acquired with bulk aerosol samplers and analyzed for mass, 20 elements (by PIXE), ions (by IC).
Source: Dust samples of resuspended road dust, construction dust and source-dominated samples from industrial, motor vehicle, night market and dumpling site were taken and measured.
Solution: APCA/CEB
Average APCA-calculated source contribution to TSP (in % mass):
Source Type
Annual
Coal combustion
37
Fugitive dust
21
Motor vehicle
20
Agricultural & waste
12
Industrial
3
Unexplained
8
Average measured mass (µg m−3)
410
Number in Average
299
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Energy Futures and Urban Air Pollution: Challenges for China and the United States
Study, Location, Period, and Measurements
Source Apportionment Method
Findings
Reference: Jinan PM study (Feng et al., 2004)
When: 24-h samples were acquired from December 15-30 1999, April 30-May 6 2000, September 7-15, 2000.
Where: Five sites includes Jinan Chemical Factory, Jinan Environmental Mornitoring Station, Shandan Seed Station, Jinan Machine Tool Factory and Official Resting Place.
Ambient: TSP and PM10 samples were acquired with KB120 medium-vol sampler and analyzed for mass, 17 elements (by ICP-MS), ions (Cl−, NO3−, SO42−, and NH4+ by IC, Na+ and K+ by AAS), and carbon (OC and EC by TOR).
Source: Dust samples from fugitive dust, soil dust, coal combustion, cement dust, and steel industry were taken and measured. Vehicular exhaust profile was used (Chow et al., 1994).
Solution: CMB
Average source contribution (in % mass):
Source Type
TSP
PM10
Fugitive dust
34
30
Coal combustion
25
27
Soil dust
18
15
Motor vehicle exhausts
6
9
Cement dust
2
3
Unexplained
15
16
Average measured mass (µg m–3)
304
175
Number in average
no reported
no reported
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Energy Futures and Urban Air Pollution: Challenges for China and the United States
Reference: Yantai TSP study (Xu et al., 2001)
When: 30-min samples were acquired.
Where: Three sites include east, west, and center stations.
Ambient: Samples were acquired with KB120 medium-vol samplers and analyzed for mass and 21 elements (by XRF).
Source: No area-specific source profile measurements were taken.
Solution: CMB
Average source contribution (in % mass):
Source Type
Annual
Construction dust
46
Residential coal combustion
21
Heavy vehicular exhaust
12
Coal burning boiler
10
Metal production plant
5
Marine aerosol
6
Mass
not reported
Number
101
Reference: Xining TSP study (Wang, 2006)
When: 30-min samples were acquired for 5 times during December 2001, May, August, and October 2002.
Where: Three sites include Environmental Mornitoring Station, Silu Hospital, and Medicine Storehouse.
Ambient: Samples were acquired with KB120 medium-vol samplers and analyzed for mass and 21 elements (by XRF).
Source: No area-specific source profile measurements were taken.
Solution: CMB
Average source contribution (in % mass):
Source Type
Annual
Coal combustion dust
37.0
Soil dust
27.0
Construction dust
15.4
Smelting dust
2.9
Mass
not reported
Number
45
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Energy Futures and Urban Air Pollution: Challenges for China and the United States
Study, Location, Period, and Measurements
Source Apportionment Method
Findings
Reference: Yinchuan PM10 study (Sang et al., 2005)
When: 24-h samples were acquired for 5 times during January, April, July, and October 2002.
Where: One site in Yinchuan Environmental Mornitoring Station.
Ambient: Samples were acquired with Anderson PM10 samplers and analyzed for mass and 17 elements (by XRF).
Source: Dust samples from fugitive dust, soil dust, coal combustion, construction dust, and steel industry were taken and measured.
Solution: CMB
Average source contribution (in % mass):
Source Type
Annual
Coal combustion dust
36.7
Soil dust
33.9
Construction dust
9.4
Smelting dust
6.5
Unexplained
13.5
Mass
232
Number
20
South China
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Energy Futures and Urban Air Pollution: Challenges for China and the United States
Reference: Hong Kong PM10 study (Lee et al., 1999)
When: 24-h samples were acquired once 6 days from 1992 to 1994.
Where: 11 sites include Central Western, Junk Bay, Taipo, Sham Shui Po, Shatin, Tsim Sha Tsui, Hong Kong South, Kwai Chung, Kwun Tong, Tsuen Wan, Mongkok.
Ambient: Samples were acquired with Anderson hi-vol samplers and analyzed for mass, 13 elements (by ICP-AES) and 6 ions (by IC)
Source: No area-specific source profile measurements were taken.
Solution: PMF
Average PMF-calculated source contribution to PM10 (in % mass):
Source Type
Annual
Secondary ammonium sulfate
37.8
Chloride depleted marine aerosols
14.3
Marine aerosols
6.9
Crustal/soil dust
6.1
Non-ferrous smelters
1.2
Vehicular emission
0.8
Particulater bromide
0.8
Particulater copper
0.6
Fuel oil burning
0.2
Unexplained
31.4
Mass
15.2
Number
1516
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Energy Futures and Urban Air Pollution: Challenges for China and the United States
Study, Location, Period, and Measurements
Source Apportionment Method
Findings
Reference: Hong Kong PM2.5 study (Ho et al., 2006)
When: 24-h samples were acquired once every 6 days from November 2000 to February 2001 and June 2001 to August 2001.
Where: Two sites include PolyU and KT.
Ambient: Samples were acquired with Anderson Instruments hi-vol samplers and analyzed for mass, 17 elements (by ICP-MS), ions (Cl−, NO3−, SO42−, and NH4+ by IC, Na+ and K+ by AAS), and carbon (OC and EC by TOR).
Source: No area-specific source profile measurements were taken.
Solution: APCA
Average APCA-calculated source contribution to PM2.5 (in % mass):
Source Type
PolyU
KT
Diesel emission
47
4
Secondary aerosol
18
Crustal matter
6
30
Automobile emission + secondary aerosol
15
44
Oil combustion
0
4
unexplained
14
8
Average measured mass (µg m−3)
41.7
43.9
Number in average
0
29
Reference: Nanjing TSP study (Hang et al., 2000) When: Samples were acquired in October 1998, January, April, and July 1999.
Where: Seven sites include Zhonghua Gate, Maigao Bridge, Ruijin Road, Xuanwu Lake, Zhongshan Tomb, Chaochang Gate, Shanxi Road.
Ambient: 6-h samples were acquired with Kb-6A samplers and analyzed for mass and 17 elements by XRF
Source: Dust samples from soil dust, coal combustion, construction dust, and steel industry were taken and measured.
Solution: CMB
Average source contribution (in % mass):
Source Type
Annual
Coal combustion dust
25.7
Soil dust
19.2
Construction dust
39.8
Smelting dust
1.8
Unexpained
13.5
Average measured mass (µg m−3)
no reported
Number
no reported
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Energy Futures and Urban Air Pollution: Challenges for China and the United States
Reference: Chongqing TSP study (Tao et al., 2006)
When: 11.5-h samples were acquired for two times once 6 days during July, October 2001, Janunary and April 2002.
Where: Seven sites include Beipei background site, Research academy of Environmental Science, No 2 Hospital, Shaping Meteorological Station, Nan’an Environmental Protection Office and Yubei Environmental Protection Office.
Ambient: Samples were acquired with TH-150C medium-vol samplers and analyzed for mass, 36 elements (by XRF), ions (by IC) and carbon (OC, EC by MT-5 elemental analyzer).
Source: Dust samples from fugitive dust, coal combustion, construction dust, vehicular dust, and steel industry were taken and measured.
Solution: CMB
Average source contribution (in % mass):
Source Type
Annual
Coal combustion dust
18.0
Soil dust
30.0
Construction dust
25.0
Environmental Smelting dust Protection Office, Jiulong
8.0
Vehicular dust
10.0
Unexpained
9.0
Average measured mass (µg m−3)
192
Number
336
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Energy Futures and Urban Air Pollution: Challenges for China and the United States
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